Lesson 42: Function Words/Conjunctions

CONJUNCTIONS

620. A conjunction is a word that may connect or link one grammatical element of any order with another of the same order. In considering negatives (§§610-617), we have already encroached upon conjunctions, since the simple negatives (οὐ, μή) sometimes have conjunctive force (§617.1-2), and there are, of course, negative conjunctions, e.g. οὔτε, οὐδέ (§617.3-5). But the negatives can be isolated as a special class of function words since they function in ways other particles do not. Sentence connectors, like conjunctions, connect grammatical elements of the same type, but the type of element they may connect is limited to sentences (independent) and clauses (included sentences). Conjunctions may thus function as sentence connectors, but also in ways sentence connectors do not; they may therefore be identified as a special group (Roberts, 1958: 233f.).

The common conjunctions include:

καί
καὶ ... καὶ ...
τέ
τε καί
τε ... καί
ἢ ... ἤ
ἀλλά (οὐ ... ἀλλά)

And the negative conjunctions:

οὔτε (μήτε)
οὐδέ (μηδέ)

621. καί is the most common of the conjunctions. It links elements of the same grammatical order and stands between them.

621.1 καί is often used, especially in narrative portions of the New Testament, in a monotonous and colloquial way to string sentences together (a colloquial running style).

In Mk l:12f., for example, καί is used to string four relatively brief sentences together. In the short narrative, Mk 1:16-20, the sequence of conjunctions and sentence connectors is as follows: (16) καὶ ... γὰρ ... (17) καὶ ... καὶ ... (18) καὶ ... (19) καὶ ... (20) καὶ ... καὶ ... The uses of καὶ to connect other than full sentences are omitted. Thus, only γὰρ appears among 7 examples of καί linking sentences. Cf. Bl-D §§442, 458.

621.2 καί may also be used to link included sentences of both dependent and independent types.

2-1 s4 C s4
(1) οἶδα / πόθεν ἤλθον (καὶ) ποῦ ὑπάγω Jn 8:14
I know whence I come and where I go
NQ A 2 1b
(2) οὐ / καλῶς / λέγομεν / ἡμεῖς / ὅτι
S4 C
Σαμαρίτης εἶ σὺ (καὶ)
S4
δαιμόνιον ἔχεις; Jn 8:48
Did we not rightly say,
"You are a Samaritan" and
"You have a demon"?

Note: (2) is here interpreted as direct discourse, although it could just as well be taken as indirect discourse.

In some instances of linked included dependent sentences, one or more elements may be omitted from the second sentence. For example, in

B4d 2-1 p6d C
(3) ... ἣν / ἀκηκόαμεν / ἀπ' αὐτοῦ (καὶ)
2-1 5b
ἀναγγέλομεν / ὑμῖν 1 Jn 1:5
... which we heard from him and [which] we proclaim to you

the relative pronoun is not repeated in the second sentence. This is an example of a deleted object in S-IV (§§60-- ).

621.3 Among grammatical elements of lesser compass than the sentence, καί links two subjects with one verb:

C 2 1d C 1n+
(4) καὶ) ἐπίστευσεν / αὐτὸς / καὶ / ἡ οἰκία
αὐτοῦ ὅλη Jn 4:53
And he and his whole house believed

Note: The elements linked may be different types of word groups (d and n+) so long as they are of the same grammatical order (1). On the singular verb with two subjects, s. §537.

While καί stands between the elements it links, it is not the only item which may come between:

1n 2 C 1n+
(5) Ἀβραὰμ / ἀπέθανεν (καὶ) / oἱ προφῆται Jn 8:52
Abraham and the prophets died

Note: The descriptive analysis of (5) indicates what two items must be linked by καί: 1n and 1n+ are the only two grammatical elements of the same order.

621.4 καί may link two verbs with a single subject:

2 1n C 2 5d
(6) ἀπεκρίθη / Ἰησοῦς / (καὶ) εἶπεν / αὐτοῖς ... Jn 8:13
Jesus answered and said to them ...

621.5 καί may link two predicate adjectives with verb and subject in S-II:

3a 2-1 C 3a
(7) πιστὸς / ἐστιν (καὶ) δίκαιος 1 Jn 1:9
he is faithful and just

621.6 καί may link two objects in S-III:

4n 2-1 C Ν -> 4n
(8) ἔλεος / θέλω (καὶ) οὐ θυσίαν Mt 12:7
I desire mercy and not sacrifice

621.7 In S-IV καί may connect two indirect and two direct objects with a single verb:

2-1 D 4d+ 5n
(9) ἀποδότε [οὖν] τὰ Καίσαρος / Καίσαρι
C 4d+ 5n+
(καὶ) τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ / τῷ θεῷ Mt 22:21
Therefore render the things of Caesar to Caesar, and the things of God to God

Or two indirect objects to a single verb and single object:

Β i 4d 5n+
(10) ... ὥστε / παραδοῦναι / αὐτὸν / τῇ ἀρχῇ
C 5n+
(καὶ) τῇ ἐξουσίᾳ τοῦ ἡγεμόνος Lk 20:20
... so as to deliver him to the authority and jurisdiction of the governor

621.8 καί is used to link two infinitives to a single catenative verb (§566.1):

C 2-1 i 4n C i
(11) καὶ) ἔρξαντο / τίλλειν / στάχυας (καὶ) ἐσθίειν Mt 12:1
And they began to pluck ears of grain and to eat

621.9 καί may link two participles:

3d p6d+
(12) ... εἷς / ἐκ τῶν δύο ἀκουσάντων παρὰ Ἰωάννου
C 6d+
(καὶ) ἀκολουθησάντων αὐτῷ Jn 1:40
... one of the two who heard John and followed him

Note: (12) is a single word group within the structure of the whole sentence, but it is composed of 3d + p6d+ (C) 6d+.

621.10 καί may link two nouns governed by a single preposition (cf. (12) above):

Β 1d 2pass p6n C 6n
(13) ἐὰν μή / τις / γεννηθῇ / ἐξ ὕδατος (καὶ) πνεύματος Jn 3:5
Unless one is born of water and spirit

In sum, καί may link any two grammatical items of the same order. It is therefore an exceedingly common signal of sentence structure.

622. καὶ ... καὶ ..., both ... and .... In linking two grammatical elements of the same order, καί may be doubled. In that case, the first καί precedes the first element and the second καί comes between them.

C 2-1 C A 2-1
(14) (καὶ) ἐδόξασα (καὶ) πάλιν / δο£άσω Jn 12:28
I have both glorified [it] and I shall glorify
[it] again

Bl-D §444 (3).

623. Although καί is used predominantly as a conjunction, it is also employed in a variety of other ways.

623.1 It often means also, too, likewise (adverbial), and with this meaning καί often contrasts two elements of the same order:

(15) εἰ ὲμὲ ᾔδειτε, καὶ τὸν πατέρα μου ἄν ᾐδειτε Jn 8:19
If you knew me, you would know my father also

Here καί stands between a subordinate and a main clause, in which ἐμέ and πατέρα are contrasted.

623.2 Ascensive καί means even:

(16) οὐχὶ καὶ οἱ τελῶναι τὸ αὐτὸ ποιοῦσιν; Mt 5:46
Do not even the tax oolleators do the same?

Ascensive καί does not connect or contrast elements.

On the variety of uses of καί, s. Bl-D §442.

624. τέ is a much less common conjunction. It has the range but not the frequency of καί. Unlike καί, τέ is postpositive (it cannot stand first in its word group) and cannot, therefore, stand between the elements it connects; it must take second or later position in the word group constituting the second element.

1b C A 2 3g
(17) σύ (τε) καλῶς / ἐποίησας / παραγενόμενος Acts 10:33
And you did well to come

Cf. Acts 11:21.

p5n 5n+ C
(18) ἐν ἀγάπῃ / πνεύματί (τε) πραΰτητος 1 Cor 4:21
in love and a spirit of gentleness

Cf. Acts 10:22.

625. τέ and καί appear in various combinations (in addition to καὶ ... καί, §622).

625.1 τε ... τε ..., both ... and ..., as ... so ..., not only ... but also ....

p4n C 3g
(19) καθ' ἡμέραν (τε) προσκαρτεροῦντες ὁμοθυμαδὸν ἐν
3g C
τῷ ἱερῷ κλῶντές (τε) κατ' οἶκον ἄρτον,... Acts 2:46
Daily both spending time in the temple and
breaking bread from house to house, ...

Bl-D §444 (1).

625.2 ... τε καί ... and τε ... καί ... are used in a similar way.

B6d 2 ln+ i CC
(20) ὧν / ἤρξατο / ὁ Ἰησοῦς / ποιεῖν (τε καὶ)
i
διδάσκειν Acts 1:1
which Jesus began both to do and to teach
Β D 2 4n+ C
(21) ὡς [δὲ] ἤκουσαν / τοὺς λόγους τούτους / ὅ (τε)
1n+ C
στρατηγὸς τοῦ ἱεροῦ (καὶ) οἱ ἀρχιερεῖς,... Acts 5:24
Now when both the captain of the temple and
the chief priests heard these words, ...

625.3 τέ may be followed by more than one καί:

C 2-1 3n+ C p5n
(22) καὶ) ἐσεσθέ / μου μάρτυρες / ἔν (τε) Ἰερουσαλὴμ
C p5n+ C 5n C
(καὶ) ἐν πάσῃ τῇ Ἰουδαίᾳ (καὶ) Σαμαρείᾳ (καὶ)
p6a+
ἕως ἐσχάτου τῆς γῆς Acts 1:8
And you wilt be my witnesses in Jerusalem and
in all Judea and in Samaria and to the end
of the earth

Word groups headed by participles (3g) are connected by τε ... τε ... in (19); infinitives (i) are joined by ... τε καί ... in (20); in (21) subject groups are linked by τε ... καί ...; and in (22) adverbial phrases headed by prepositions are joined by τε ... καὶ ... καὶ ... καὶ ....

625.4 τέ is not only postpositive (§624) but enclitic (§074) as well: it is pronounced with the preceding word and so loses its accent to that word.

626. is a particle that serves (a) as a disjunctive conjunction (i.e. it joins alternatives), (b) to denote comparison. In sense (b) it also joins elements: more this than that.

626.1 ἤ as a disjunctive conjunction links elements of the same order grammatically, although in meaning they may be opposites:

Ν -> 2c-1 4n+ 4a i
(23) οὐ δύνασαι / μίαν τρίχα / λευκὴν / ποιῆσαι
C 4a
(ἢ) μέλαιναν Mt 5:36
You are not able to make one hair white or black

(23) is a type V sentence (§521).

626.2 Like καί and τέ, ἤ may be doubled, in which case it means either ... or.

C D 4d+ 2-1 C 4d+
(24) [γὰρ] τὸν ἕνα / μισήσει (καὶ) τὸν ἕτερον /
2-1 C 6d 2-1 C
ἀγαπήσει, (ἢ) ἑνὸς / ἀνθέξεται (καὶ) τοῦ
6d+ 2-1
ἑτέρου / καταφρονήσει Mt 6:24
For either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to one and despise the other

ἢ ... ἤ links the two compound sentences, each of which, in turn, is composed of two sentences linked by καί.

626.3 In comparisons ἤ is often preceded by a comparative:

2 ln+ AC 4n+
(25) ἠγάπησαν / oἱ ἄθρωποι / μᾶλλον / τὸ σκότος
C 4n+
(ἢ) τὸ φῶς Jn 3:19
Men loved the darkness rather than the light

μᾶλλον is a comparative adverb and hence has conjunctive force.

627.ἀλλά, but, yet, nevertheless, however, is commonly preceded by a negative (not ... but ..., cf. §617), although it is also used in other ways (§628) . In combination with a negative, ἀλλά is employed to join grammatical elements of the same order, as is the case with other conjunctions.

627.1 οὐ ... ἀλλά ... may link two subjects:

5g+ 2-1
(26) τοῖς [δὲ] γεγαμηκόσιν / παραγγέλλω //
NC -> 1b C 1n+
οὐκ ἐγὼ ἀλλὰ ὁ κύριος ... 1 Cor 7:10
To the married I give charge,
not I but the Lord ...

627.2 Two predicates in S-II:

1n+ NC -> 2 3n+
(27) καὶ γὰρ] τὸ σῶμα / οὐκ ἔστιν / ἓν μέλος
C 3d
ἀλλὰ πολλά 1 Cor 12:14
For the body is not one member but many

627.3 Two objects:

NC ->2-1 4n+
(28) οὐ ζητῶ / τὸ θέλημα τὸ ἐμὸν
C 4n+
ἀλλὰ τὸ θέλημα τοῦ πεμψαντός με Jn 5:30
I seek not my will but the will of the one who sent me

Cf. Jn 6:38; Mt. 9:13 // Lk 5:32

627.4 Two p-phrases:

NC -> p4a+
(29) οὐκ εἰς τὸ κρεῖσσον
C p4a+ 2-1
ἀλλὰ εἰς, τὸ ἧσσον / συνέρχεσθε I Cor 11:17
You come together not for the better
but for the worse

627.5 Two predicate datives:

1n+ NC -> 5n+
(30) τὸ [δὲ] σῶμα / οὐ τῇ πορνείᾳ
C 5n+
ἀλλὰ τῷ κυρίῳ 1 Cor 6:13
The body belongs not to fornication
but to the Lord

For examples of οὐ ... ἀλλά ... joining sentences, s. §617.1-2, 5.

628. αλλά not preceded by a negative may mark a transition to something contrasted or different:

2-1 s4 C
(31) οἶδα / ὅτι σπέρμα Ἀβραάμ ἐστε // ἀλλὰ
2-1 4b i
ζητεῖτε / με / ἀποκτεῖναι. Jn 8:37
I know that you are seed of Abraham; nevertheless
you seek to kill me

For other nuances of ἀλλά, s. Bauer s.v. 3-6.