Mongolian Interlude | The Chinese Regain Power | The Rise of the Manchus | Emergence of Modern China | The Western Powers Arrive | The Opium War, 1839- 1842 | The Taiping Rebellion, 1851- 1864 | The Self-Strengthening Movement | The Hundred Days Reform and the Aftermath | The Boxer Rebellion, 1899- 1901 | The Republican Revolution of 1911
Mongolian Interlude
Vast empire of Kublai Khan
Mongols subjugated north China, Korea, and the Muslim kingdoms of Central Asia
Kublai Khan begins drive against Southern Song
Yuan dynasty established- first alien dynasty to rule all China
Managing China
Mongols tried to employ Han bureaucrats
Han discriminated against
Mongols preferred non-Chinese from vast Mongol Empire for government positions
Chinese employed in non-Chinese regions of the empire
Cultural development
Major cultural achievements
Novel
Drama
Written vernacular
Vast empire provided frequent cultural exchange
Western musical instruments introduced to China
Chinese printing techniques, porcelain production, playing cards, and medical literature introduced in Europe
Production of thin glass and cloisonné popular in China
The Venetian Marco Polo visited Yuan court
Religious evolution
Conversion of Chinese in northwest and southwest to Islam from Central Asia
Nestorianism, Roman Catholicism enjoyed period of toleration
Buddhism flourished
Native Taoism endured Mongol persecution
Technological development
Advances in travel literature, cartography and geography, and scientific education
Public works
Road and water communications reorganized, improved
Granaries built throughout empire
City of Beijing rebuilt
New palace grounds
Artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks
Grand Canal completely renovated with terminus in Beijing
Agricultural innovations
Introduction of sorghum
Chinese and Mongol travelers to West provided assistance in hydraulic engineering
The Chinese Regain Power
Collapse of the Yuan dynasty
Rivalry among Mongol imperial heirs
Natural disasters
Peasant uprisings
The Ming dynasty
Founded by Buddhist monk turned rebel leader
Capital moved from Nanjing to Beijing
Chinese armies reconquered Annam
Major regional power
Naval expeditions
Tribute or 'Treasure' fleets
Sailed Indian ocean and eastern African coast
Stopped suddenly in 1433
'Golden Age'
Stability
Government, arts, population (100 million), economy, society, politics
Promoted belief that they had the most satisfactory civilization on earth
Nothing foreign was needed
Fall of the Ming dynasty
Long wars with the Mongols
Incursions by Japanese into Korea
The Rise of the Manchus
Last imperial dynasty (Qing) established in 1644
Sinicization of ruling Manchus
Assimilated Chinese culture before conquering China Proper
Manchus retained many institutions of Ming and earlier Chinese derivation
They continued Confucian court practices, temple rituals
Continued Confucian civil service system
Chinese barred from highest offices
Chinese predominated over Manchus outside the capital, except military positions
Manchu emperors supported Chinese literary, historical projects
Survival of China's ancient literature attributed to projects
Manchurian purity
Han Chinese prohibited from migrating into Manchu homeland
Manchus forbidden to engage in trade, manual labor
Intermarriage between the two groups forbidden
Expansion
China Proper subdued
Outer Mongolia conquered
Gained control of Central Asia as far as Pamir Mountains
Established protectorate over Tibet
Taiwan incorporated into China for first time
Qing emperors received tribute from border states
Threats
Western traders, missionaries, soldiers of fortune arrived before Manchus in southern coast
Emergence of Modern China
Autumn of the Qing dynasty
Empire's inability to evaluate nature of new challenge, respond flexibly resulted Qing fall and collapse of dynastic rule
Empire confronted with challenges from Western powers
Centuries of peace encouraged little change in attitudes of ruling elite
Neo-Confucian scholars believed in cultural superiority of Chinese civilization
Innovation, adoption of foreign ideas viewed as heresy
Imperial purges of those who deviated from orthodoxy
Economic turmoil
Bulging population (300,000,000) led to unemployment
Scarcity of land led to rural discontent
Corruption of bureaucratic, military systems
Urban pauperism
Revolution begins
Localized revolts erupted in parts of empire in early 19th century
Anti-Manchu secret societies gained ground
The Western Powers Arrive
Portuguese established foothold at Macao (Aomen)
Monopolize foreign trade at Guangzhou (Canton)
Spanish, British, French arrive
No conception at imperial court that Europeans would expect to be treated as cultural, political equals
Russian exception
Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689)
Established border between Siberia and Manchuria (northeast China) along Heilong Jiang (Amur River)
China's first bilateral agreement with Europe
Treaty of Kiakhta (1727)
Delimited remainder of eastern Sino- Russian border
Trade
Officially rebuffed
Chinese assumption that the empire was not in need of foreign products
Practically accepted; foreign trade flourished
After 1760 all foreign trade confined to Guangzhou
Foreign traders limited to officially licensed Chinese merchant firms (about a dozen)
Non official contact with West
Roman Catholic missionaries
Jesuits
Converted only 100,000 by 1800
Contributed to Chinese knowledge
Cannon casting, calendar making, geography, mathematics, cartography, music, art, and architecture
Christianity fitted into Chinese framework
Christian movement weakened
Condemned for tolerating Confucian ancestor rites by Papal decision (1704)
The Opium War, 1839- 1842
Also called 'Arrow War'
Trade imbalance
Western demand for Chinese goods
No Chinese demand for Western (British) goods
Third-party trade
Western goods sold to India, Southeast Asia
Raw materials and semi processed goods bought
Demand for raw materials in China
Illegal opium primary British export to China (early 19th century)
Balanced trade deficit
Opium trade resulted from corrupt officials, greedy merchants
Drastic laws enacted by government (1839) prohibited opium trade
Qing commissioner sent to Guangzhou (Lin Zexu 1785- 1850)
Suppressed opium traffic
Seized stocks of opium
Destroyed 20,000 chests of British opium
Detained entire foreign community
British retaliation
Qing underestimated capability of enemy
Defeat tarnished image of their own imperial power
Unequal Treaty
Treaty of Nanjing (1842)
Signed on British warship Arrow
Hong Kong ceded to British
5 ports opened to foreign residence and trade
Granted British nationals extraterritoriality
Abolished licensed monopoly system of trade
The Taiping Rebellion, 1851- 1864
Largest uprising in modern Chinese history
Territory encompassed Nanjing, Tianjin
Over 30 million people reported killed
Causes
Government neglect of public works
Natural disasters
Droughts, famines, floods
Government inaction
Economic tensions, military defeats at Western hands, anti-Manchu sentiments
Hong Xiuquan (1814-64)
Teacher and unsuccessful imperial examination candidate
Ideology combined ideals of pre-Confucian utopianism with Protestant beliefs
Hong's followers
Consisting of believers and other armed peasant groups, secret societies
Guizhou Province uprising (1851)
Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (Taiping Tianguo)
New order
Reconstitute legendary ancient state
Peasant- owned and tilled land
Slavery, concubinage, arranged marriage, opium smoking, foot binding, judicial torture, worship of idols to be eliminated
Rebellion's defeat
Advocacy of radical social reforms
Failed to establish stable base areas
Western military aid
French, British
More inclined toward weak Qing than uncertain Taiping
Zeng Guofan (1811-72)
Appointed imperial commissioner, governor-general of Taiping-controlled territories
Zeng's army under the command of eminent scholar-generals
Success gave new power to emerging Han Chinese elite
The Self-Strengthening Movement
Opium war, unequal treaties, mass uprisings produced need to strengthen China
Western practical methods for self- strengthening
Western science, languages studied
Military bases, manufacturing, diplomatic practices established according to Western models
Tongzhi Restoration
Begun to arrest dynastic, imperial decline
Engineered by Tongzhi Emperor (1862-74)'s mother Empress Dowager Ci Xi (1835-1908)
Restore traditional order, apply practical knowledge
Not genuine program to modernize
Lack of practical understanding
Social, political reform needed
'Old Ways' led to foreign domination
Bureaucracy deeply influenced by Neo-Confucian orthodoxy
Lack of 'Self-Strength'
Foreign powers carve into Chinese Empire
Russia invades Manchuria
Russian diplomats secured secession of all Manchuria north of Heilong Jiang and east of Wusuli Jiang (Ussuri River) (1860 )
Britain acquired 99-year lease on Kowloon (New Territories), Hong Kong (1898)
Belgium, Germany gained influence in China
Foreign settlements in treaty ports became extraterritorial
Safety guaranteed by foreign military presence
Vassal states overtaken by Western powers
French
Protectorate established over Cambodia (1864)
Cochin China (southern Vietnam) colonized
Annam (Vietnam Proper) taken in war (1884-85)
British
Gained control over Burma
Russians
Gained control over Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang)
Japanese
Taiwan, Penghu Islands ceded in Treaty of Shimonoseki (1894-95)
Hegemony established over Korea
'Open Door Policy'
Proposed by the United States
All foreign countries would have equal duties, privileges in all treaty ports
The Hundred Days Reform and the Aftermath
11 June to 21 September 1898 (103 days)
Qing emperor, Guangxu (1875-1908) ordered social, institutional reforms
Effort reflected thinking of a group of progressive scholar-reformers
Impressed the court with urgency of making innovations for nation's survival
Influenced by Japanese success with modernization
Reformers declared China needed more than "self-strengthening"
Innovation must be accompanied by institutional, ideological change
Edicts for reform covered broad range of subjects
Stamping out corruption and remaking academic and civil-service examination systems, legal system, governmental structure, defense establishment, postal services
Attempted to modernize agriculture, medicine, and mining
Promoted practical studies instead of Neo-Confucian orthodoxy
Reform changes were to be brought about under de facto constitutional monarchy
Opposition intense among ruling elite
Manchus proposed moderate and gradualist course of change
Coup d'etat (21 September 1898)
Supported by ultraconservatives, Yuan Shikai (1859-1916)
Engineered by Empress Dowager Ci Xi
Forced Guangxu into seclusion
Ci Xi took over government as regent
All new edicts rescinded
6 chief advocates of reform excecuted
2 reform leaders Kang Youwei (1858-1927), Liang Qichao (1873-1929) fled abroad
Founded the Baohuang Hui (Protect the Emperor Society) toward constitutional monarchy in China
The Boxer Rebellion, 1899- 1901
Secret societies
Known as Yihetuan (Society of Righteousness and Harmony)
Known in West as Boxers from the earlier name Yihequan (Righteousness and Harmony Boxers)
Anti-foreign, anti-Christian movement
Backed in secret by conservative elements of government
1900
Boxer bands spread over north China, killing Chinese Christians, burning missionary facilities
Boxers besieged the foreign concessions in Beijing and Tianjin (June)
Offended countries sent reinforcements
Qing declared war on invaders
Foreign reinforcements prevail, occupy north China
Protocol of 1901
Ended hostilities
10 high officials executed
Hundreds punished
Legation Quarter expanded
Some Chinese fortifications razed
Foreign troops stationed in China
The Republican Revolution of 1911
Court enacted reform measures (1906)
Abolition of Confucian-based examination
Educational and military modernization
Experiment in constitutional, parliamentary government
Establishment of new armies
Mandate of Heaven is lost
Failure of reform, Boxer Uprising convinced Chinese that the solution lay in outright revolution
Old order to be removed with new one patterned after Japan
Sun Yat-sen (Sun Yixian, 1866- 1925)
Founded Tongmeng Hui (United League) in Tokyo with Huang Xing (1874-1916) (1905)
Movement supported by overseas Chinese funds
Gained political support with regional military officers, reformers who fled China after Hundred Days' Reform
Three Principles of the People (san min zhuyi)
Nationalism
Called for overthrowing the Manchus, ending foreign hegemony over China
Democracy
Popularly elected republican form of government
People's Livelihood
Aimed at helping common people through regulation of ownership of means of production and land
10 October 1911
Begun in Wuchang, Hubei Province by discontented modernized army units
Anti-Qing plot had been uncovered
Preceded by numerous abortive uprisings, organized protests inside China
Revolt spread to neighboring cities
Tongmeng Hui members throughout country rose in immediate support of Wuchang revolutionary forces
15 of the 24 provinces declared their independence from Qing empire (November)
2,500 year old Chinese Imperial system ends; Chinese Republic is born
Sun Yat-sen returned to China from United States, inaugurated in Nanjing as provisional president of new Chinese republic (1 January 1912)
Power in Beijing already passed to commander-in-chief of the imperial army (Yuan Shikai)
To prevent civil war, possible foreign intervention, Sun agreed to Yuan's demand that China be united under a Beijing government headed by Yuan
The last Manchu emperor, the child Puyi (Aisinjioro Pu Yi), abdicated (12 February 1912)
Yuan Shikai sworn in as provisional president of the Republic of China (10 March 1912)