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DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY -- NAVAL HISTORICAL CENTER
805 KIDDER BREESE SE -- WASHINGTON NAVY YARD
WASHINGTON DC 20374-5060
U.S. Navy - U.S. Air Force Relationships
1970-2010
Peter M. Swartz
With Karin Duggan
MISC D0024022.A4/1 Rev June 2011
CNA
ANALYSIS & SOLUTIONS
Strategic Studies is a division of CNA. This directorate conducts strategy and force assessments, analyses of security policy, regional analyses, and studies of political-military issues. CNA Strategic Studies is part of the global community of strategic studies institutes and in fact collaborates with many of them.
Our strategists and military/naval operations experts have either active duty experience or have served as field analysts with operating Navy and Marine Corps commands. They are skilled at anticipating the "problem after next" as well as determining measures of effectiveness to assess ongoing initiatives. A particular strength is bringing empirical methods to the evaluation of peace-time engagement and shaping activities.
On the ground experience is a hallmark of our regional work. Our specialists combine in-country experience, language skills, and the use of local primary-source data to produce empirically based work. All of our analysts have advanced degrees, and virtually all have lived and worked abroad.
The Strategic Studies Division's charter is global. In particular, our analysts have proven expertise in the following areas:
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Maritime strategy
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Future national security environment and forces
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Deterrence, WMD proliferation, missile defense, and arms control.
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Insurgency and stabilization
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The world's most important navies
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The full range of Asian security issues
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The full range of Middle East related security issues, especially Iran and the Arabian Gulf
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European security issues, especially the Mediterranean littoral
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West Africa, especially the Gulf of Guinea
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Latin America
The Strategic Studies Division is led by Acting Director, Dr. Eric V. Thompson, who is available at 703-824-2243and on e-mail at thompsoe@cna.org. The executive assistant to the Acting Director is Ms. Rebecca Martin, at 703-824-2604.
The author thanks Dr. Jeffrey Barlow, Dr. William Bundy, Ms. Jo Decker, Vice Admiral (Ret) Robert Dunn, Dr. Thomas Ehrhard, Commander Carl Forkner, Dr. Timothy Francis, Mr. Gregory Martin, Dr. Katherine McGrady, Vice Admiral (Ret) Gerald Miller, Dr. Albert Nofi, Dr. Sarandis Papadopoulos, Commander Gregory Parker, Dr. Bruce Powers, Mr. Karl Rubis, Dr. Gregory Swider, Dr. Scott Truver, Dr. Daniel Whiteneck, and Dr. Thomas Wildenberg for their reviews and substantive contributions; Ms. Karin Duggan for graphic assistance; Ms. Loretta Ebner for administrative assistance; and Mr. Gregory Kaminski, Ms. Laurie Ann Lakatosh, and Ms. Rhea Stone for library assistance.
Approved for distribution:
June 2011

Dr. W. Eugene Cobble, Jr.
Director, Strategic Initiatives Group
This document contains the best opinion of CNA at the time of issue.
It does not necessarily represent the opinion of the Department of the Navy.
Approved for public release. Distribution unlimited. Specific authority: N00014-05-D-0500.
Copies of this document can be obtained through the Defense Technical Information Center at www.dtic.mil
Or contact CNA Document Control and Distribution Section at 703-824-2123.
Copyright © 2011 CNA
This work was created in the performance of Federal Government Contract Number N00014-05-D-0500. Any copyright in this work is subject to the Government's Unlimited Rights license as defined in DFARS 252.227-7013 and/or DFARS 252.227-7014.
Purpose of this Study |
CNA |
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To provide context & perspective for decisionmakers & staffs concerned with
contemporary & future USN-USAF relationships, e.g.,
To provide a basic resource & primer for further research & analyses by
students & analysts of naval & military affairs
Aimed principally--but not exclusively--at Navy audiences
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--1--
Summary (I) |
CNA |
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USN & USAF have had a century-long relationship of cooperation & rivalry
USN-USAF inter-service rivalry has at times been particularly intense, even legendary
But examples of USN-USAF cooperation have been legion
The legends of the rivalry became an influence in their own right, and have overshadowed the record of cooperation
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Summary (II) |
CNA |
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Rivalries--and cooperation--continued through the 1980s
Rivalries far more tempered in 1990s & 2000s
Operation Desert Storm & subsequent rise of Chinese military = watershed events
2010 development of USN-USAF Air-Sea Battle Concept symptomatic--and a product of evolved, more cooperative nature of the relationship
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--2--
Summary: What has Driven the Relationship? |
CNA |
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Cooperation has its benefits
So does competition
Why have the services cooperated? Why have they not?
Analyzing the data yields many drivers
Competition and rivalry occur when their drivers are more prominent
The same is true for integration and cooperation
From the record presented, these drivers can be identified ...
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Summary: What has Driven the Relationship? |
CNA |
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--3--
Study Approach |
CNA |
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Adapted & greatly expanded data & analyses originally in support of earlier CNA study US Navy Capstone Strategies & Concepts: 1970-2009 (2009)
Slide format for ease of potential use by Navy & other staff officers
UNCLAS for wider potential distribution
Data & observations presented chronologically
Begins with pre-1970 legacy
Separate sections on 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 2001-10
Sought objective approach, favoring no one service
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Caveats |
CNA |
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Study was requested by the US Navy & was Navy-funded. Written principally--but not exclusively--for use by Navy & Navy-related readers
Assumes more reader familiarity with US Navy than with US Air Force
Provides more data on USAF than USN in many areas (e.g., service concepts, strategy & doctrine)
Related CNA studies provide Navy data (inside back cover has details)
Study cost, time constraints precluded drafting of a narrative; or deeper treatment of pre-1970 era
Principal author is retired US Navy officer
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--4--
The Pre-1970s Deep Legacy |
CNA |
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Legacy Bottom Line: Cooperation and Rivalry |
CNA |
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--5--
Legacy Bottom Line: Cooperation and Rivalry |
CNA |
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"Culture of rivalry" was famous.
Long record of cooperation far less well-known.
Post-1970 USN & USAF inherited these deep cultural & actual legacies
"Culture of rivalry" greatly overshadowed record of cooperation
Deep legacies were a powerful influence (1970-2010)
Deep legacies sometimes still influential today
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The Legacy: A Preliminary Note |
CNA |
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--6--
The Legacy: Central USN-AAF Policy Issues |
CNA |
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The Legacy: Central USN-AAF Policy Issues |
CNA |
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1918-1941: Air Service/ Army Air Corps resisted Navy procurement & operation of land-based long-range patrol bombers
1919-1944: USN resisted Air Service/Army Air Corps roles in offshore coastal defense anti-surface warfare & anti-submarine warfare
But in any event ...
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--7--
The Legacy: Central USN-AAF Policy Issues |
CNA |
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1926-1942: AAF promoted strategic horizontal bombing vs. ships at sea; Navy developed dive bombing, torpedo bombing, scouting
1944-1950: AAF/ USAF resisted Navy carrier aircraft strike roles, including nuclear, vs. shore targets
1944-1970: Navy sought to:
Preserve operational autonomy;
Build, maintain robust deterrent, shore strike capabilities
Peer competitors (& targets) at sea had vanished after 1944 Resist USAF control of naval strike, strategic deterrent, early warning, & anti-air warfare (AAW) capabilities
De-conflict (but not integrate) with USAF operations
1942-1970: USN developed, then ceded support airlift, space capabilities, missions to USAF
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The Legacy: Pre-World War I Milestones (I) |
CNA |
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Pre-World War I: Both Army & Navy developed landplane, seaplane, flying boat capabilities & tactics
1914: Mexican intervention
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--8--
The Legacy: Pre-World War I Milestones (II) |
CNA |
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1915: National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) created
Congress created, through a Naval Appropriations Act
To research & advise on aviation science & engineering
Included senior and junior Army & Navy, other members
Testy relations with Army; good relations with Navy
1916: Joint Army & Navy Board on Aeronautical Cognizance created
1916: Joint Army & Navy Aeronautical Board created
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The Legacy: World War I Milestones |
CNA |
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1917: Joint Technical Board on Aircraft created to standardize service aircraft designs
1917-18: World War I
Army Air Service focus in Europe on reconnaissance, pursuit, support of ground forces.
USN included 2000+ seaplanes, flying boats, airships, landplanes & balloons--570 deployed overseas
Navy role primarily ASW patrol by seaplanes
Army Air Service (AAS) leaders opposed Navy acquiring land-based bombers to bomb German Navy submarine pens; over-ruled by GEN Pershing
AAS opposed to Navy Caproni aircraft contracts
1918: 4 UK-built AAS Camel fighters to US Navy for battleship gun turret launch experiments
1918: Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) merged into new, consolidated Royal Air Force (RAF)
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--9--
The Legacy: Interwar Milestones (I) |
CNA |
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1920s & 30s:
USN developed carrier, flying boat, seaplane, airship, battleship/cruiser, some land-based patrol aviation capabilities, mostly for offensive fleet roles
US Army Air Service (AAS) sought to acquire & deploy long-range bombers for anti-ship coast defense
Joint Army and Navy Board delineated service aviation responsibilities in coast defense
Agreement on airships (1921)
Periodic executive & legislative branch examinations of US defense unification & creation of a separate Air Force. Yielded no major changes to 2-service model.
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The Legacy: Interwar Milestones (II) |
CNA |
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1920s & 30s: Routine Army-Navy joint exercises; routine Army Air Service (AAS) participation in Navy at-sea exercises, including strikes against shore
1921: Navy Bureau of Aeronautics created
1921: In Navy-run joint demonstration, Brig Gen Billy Mitchell, disregarding agreed rules he thought unfair, had AAS bombers sink unarmed stationary German battleship at sea. (Navy aircraft participated as well). Inter-service antipathies intensified
1924: Navy operational support for path-breaking Army Air Service round-the-world flight
1925: Navy dirigible USS Shenandoah crashed. Brig Gen Mitchell publicly attacked War & Navy Departments. Mitchell court-martialed, retired
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--10--
The Legacy: Interwar Milestones (III) |
CNA |
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1926: Congress created Army Air Corps (AAC)
1931: MacArthur-Pratt Agreement: USN aviation to focus on the Fleet; No USN land-based patrol bomber aircraft; US coastal defense to Army & its Air Service
1931: Widely publicized failure of AAC bombers to find, sink freighter Mt Shasta, off Virginia Capes
1933: Army Air Corps (AAC) began use of Navy-developed Norden bombsight
1933: Navy CNO Pratt retired. Navy leadership began to back off from MacArthur-Pratt Agreement
1937: Naval Air Station San Diego at North Island took over neighboring AAC Rockwell Field as well
1937: AAC transferred its non-rigid airships to USN
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The Legacy: Interwar Milestones (IV) |
CNA |
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1937: Seven new US Army Air Corps (AAC) B-17 Flying Fortress bombers "attacked" USN target ship USS Utah during exercises off California
1938: Successful, widely-publicized AAC three-plane B-17 surveillance & interception exercise, targeting Italian liner Rex, 725 miles east of New York City
1940: New Navy carrier USS Wasp (CV-7) launched 33 Army Air Corps fighters & surveillance aircraft at sea off Virginia Capes, to gather data on take-off runs of Army aircraft
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--11--
The Legacy: World War II (1941-3) (I) |
CNA |
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1941: US Navy carrier aircraft supplemented inadequate available numbers of AAC close-
support aircraft to support US Army GHQ Louisiana & Carolina Maneuvers
1941: Navy carrier USS Wasp (CV-7) ferried & launched at sea 33 Army Air Corps fighters & trainers, to provide air defense for Iceland
1942-3: Navy carrier USS Ranger (CV-4) ferried & launched at sea 300 Army Air Corps fighters to Accra, British West Africa
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The Legacy: World War II (1941-1943) (II) |
CNA |
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1941: US Navy resumed acquiring, deploying land-based patrol bombers, especially for anti-submarine warfare (ASW)
1941: US Army Air Forces (USAAF) deployed land-based bombers for ASW
Mar 1942: USAAF patrol bombers placed under Navy Sea Frontier operational control
Oct 1942: USAAF set up Army Antisubmarine Air Command
1943: Inter-service agreement: US Navy took over USAAF land-based long-range over-water maritime patrol aviation responsibilities
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--12--
The Legacy: World War II (1941-1943) (III) |
CNA |
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1941: USN created Naval Air Transport Service (NATS)
1941-2: US Army Air Forces (AAF) obtained A-24 Banshees (from Navy-developed SBD Dauntless dive-bombers)
1942: Doolittle Raid on Japan: AAF B-25 Mitchell bombers launched from USN carrier
1942-44: USN commanders set up Joint Army-Navy-Marine land-based air commands to support USMC & Army in Solomons Campaign, especially Guadalcanal
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The Legacy: World War II (1942-1945) (I) |
CNA |
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1942-5: USN-USMC-US Army forces seized Pacific islands for use as Army Air Forces (AAF) air bases
1942-45: AAF bombers conducted anti-surface warfare ops (ASUW) & strategic mining, e.g.,
Battle of Midway (failed high-altitude bombing) (1942)
Bismarck Sea (successful "skip-bombing" tactics) (1943)
Mining of Japan home island waters (1945)
1943-1945: Navy developed carrier strike aviation capabilities, experience vs. military targets ashore
1945: Massive Navy carrier strikes against Japanese home islands military & industrial targets ashore
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--13--
The Legacy: World War II (1942-1945) (II) |
CNA |
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1944-5: Army Air Forces (AAF) head Gen Arnold (as JCS executive agent) controlled independent 20th Air Force of B-29 Superfortresses for strategic bombing of Japan
A new 3rd major command in the Pacific, reporting to neither ADM Nimitz nor Gen MacArthur
Used Marianas bases recently taken by all services
1943-5: Navy ordnance expertise integrated into largely-AAF atomic bomb development, operations
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The Legacy: World War II (1942-1945) (III) |
CNA |
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Early Army Air Forces (AAF) preference for high-
altitude bombing vs. ships proved ineffective
US Navy fleet carriers were never directly
assigned to US Army theater commanders
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--14--
The Legacy: World War II (1942-1945) (IV) |
CNA |
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The Legacy: Postwar Milestones (1940s) (I) |
CNA |
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1944-1947: Intense inter-service disagreements regarding unification of US armed forces & creation of an independent US Air Force
Army Air Force leaders saw unification & Air Force autonomy as necessary if US strategic airpower was to be most effectively created & used
Navy leaders saw unification & Air Force autonomy as unnecessary & threatening to the proper development & application of US sea power
1946: JCS Outline Command Plan (1st Unified Command Plan) designated US Army Air Forces Strategic Air Command (SAC) as specified command
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--15--
The Legacy: Postwar Milestones (1940s) (II) |
CNA |
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1945-6: Rivalry over long-range patrol capability
AAF touted new B-29 Superfortress; USN touted new P2V Neptune
AAF publicized 7,500-mile unrefueled Guam-to-Washington B-29 flight (1945)
Navy publicized 11,236-mile unrefueled Perth-to-Columbus Truculent Turtle P2V flight (1946)
Mid & late 1940s: Both services developed nuclear weapons, delivery systems, power plants
Navy developed nuclear-capable carrier-based aircraft & nuclear weapons
Also submarine-launched SSM-N-8 Regulus nuclear cruise missile
USN developed nuclear reactors for submarines; USAF studied nuclear-powered aircraft, tested components
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The Legacy: Postwar Milestones (1940s) (III) |
CNA |
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1947: National Security Act: New Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) over 3 military departments (Army, Navy, newly independent co-equal Air Force)
1948: Key West & Newport Agreements divided national security roles among the military services.
New Secretary of Defense Forrestal, Joint Chiefs of Staff drafted "Functions of the Armed Forces and the Joint Chiefs of Staff" paper, including division of nuclear weapons & military aviation roles & missions among the services & their forces
Tensions among the services would persist, however
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--16--
The Legacy: Postwar Milestones (1940s) (IV) |
CNA |
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The Legacy: Postwar Milestones (1940s) (V) |
CNA |
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1948: USAF-led joint Military Air Transport Service (MATS) created
Naval Air Transport Service (NATS) disestablished
2 USN Navy Fleet Logistics Support Wings created under fleet commanders
Navy admiral became MATS deputy commander
1948-49: MATS-led Berlin Airlift operation
1949: "Revolt of the Admirals:"
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--17--
The Legacy: Milestones (Korean War) |
CNA |
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1950-53 (Korean War):
Little unity of command
Separate service "route packages" established
Operational de-confliction the norm, vice integration
Bitter inter-service antagonisms over command & control
Conflicting USN & USAF close air support doctrines
Operations themselves often successful
Navy adopted some USAF safety practices:
Navy-USAF pilot exchanges began: Squadron & flight instructor duty & test pilot schools, war college exchanges
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The Legacy: Milestones (1950s) (I) |
CNA |
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--18--
The Legacy: Milestones (1950s) (II) |
CNA |
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1954-1965: USN Atlantic & Pacific continental air defense & at-sea barrier early warning commands
Integrated into USAF-led joint Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD) system
Deployed land-based tactical fighter & maritime patrol aircraft, blimps, station ships
Little USN enthusiasm
To forestall USAF encroachment into over-water ops
USN reluctance to commit forces & technology to continental air defense helped lead USAF to develop its own airborne early warning capability
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The Legacy: Milestones (1950s) (III) |
CNA |
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1956: Secretary of Defense Wilson designated Secretary of the Air Force as single manager for Defense Department airlift services
1957: Navy Fleet Logistic Support Wings were disestablished, transferred long-range aircraft to Military Air Transport Service (MATS)
MATS still included Navy crews, other personnel
1956: USN Regulus cruise missile tests began at Bonham AFB, Kauai, Hawaii
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--19--
The Legacy: Milestones (1950s) (IV) |
CNA |
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New USN carrier-based fighters now equal in performance to USAF fighters (e.g., F-8 Crusader, F-4 Phantom II)
Each service continued to develop & deploy separate strategic & tactical nuclear weapons & delivery systems
Each service adapted some systems developed by the other
USAF continued to press for centralized operational control of most US military aviation as most effective use of air assets. Navy, other services opposed
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The Legacy: Milestones (1960s) (I) |
CNA |
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1960: USN deployed nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs).
Carrier nuclear strike roles became secondary
LANTCOM & PACOM held OPCON over SSBNs.
Strategic Air Command (SAC) retained OPCON over Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), strategic bombers, tankers
1960: Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff (JSTPS) established
1961: 1st Single Integrated Operational Plan (SIOP) for strategic nuclear targeting took effect
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--20--
The Legacy: Milestones (1960) (II) |
CNA |
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1961: SECDEF McNamara made USAF responsible for US military space programs
1961: Kennedy administration terminated USAF nuclear-powered aircraft development program
(Army program scaled back, following reactor explosion)
USN retained monopoly on military nuclear power
1961-1975: USN at-sea astronaut recovery ops
1962: Cuban Missile Crisis: USAF RB-47 Stratojets & other aircraft helped search the North Atlantic for Soviet ships transporting missiles to Cuba
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The Legacy: Milestones (1960) (III) |
CNA |
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1962: US Defense Department adopted one standard unified system of mission-based designations for aircraft of all services
Based on 1948-1962 USAF system
E.g., USN now re-designated and re-named the F4H-1 Phantom to F-4 Phantom II
1962: USAF passed command of NATO airfield at Keflavik, Iceland to USN
1964: USAF transferred Pacific Missile Range Facility (PMRF) and Bonham Air Force Base (Kauai, Hawaii) to USN
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--21--
The Legacy: Milestones (1960s) (IV) |
CNA |
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1966: Major USN salvage operation to retrieve USAF B-52G Stratofortress H-bomb lost off Palomares, Spain
1968: USAF EC-121 Warning Star surveillance aircraft began over-water patrols in the Greenland-Iceland-United Kingdom (GIUK) Gap
1961-68: Abortive SECDEF McNamara common USN-USAF strike aircraft program (TFX, later F-111)
USAF (often reluctantly) adopted USN-developed aircraft, weapons, e.g.,
B-66 Destroyer, F-4 Phantom II, A-7 Corsair II, Shrike missile, etc.
Heavy SECDEF, OSD pressure in most cases
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The Legacy: Milestones (1960s) (V) |
CNA |
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1969: USN created "Top Gun" Fighter Weapons School
USN ceased contributing strategic airlift crews & aircraft to Military Air Transport Service (MATS)
USN Military Sealift Command (MSC) operated missile range instrumentation ships (AGMs) in support of USAF missile test data-gathering programs
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--22--
Service Comparisons: 1970-2010 |
CNA |
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Service Comparisons Over Time (1970-2010) |
CNA |
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Department of the Navy & Department of the Air Force budget levels have fluctuated, but have been more or less similar (1970-2010)
US Navy & US Air Force active uniformed personnel levels have declined considerably (1970-2010)
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--23--
TOA $ by Military Department (1970-2010) |
CNA |
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Service Active Duty Personnel (1970-2010) |
CNA |
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--24--
USN-USAF Relations |
CNA |
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1970s: USN-USAF Relationship: Bottom Lines |
CNA |
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Both cooperation & rivalry persisted
Continued Navy resistance to subordination to USAF operational commanders
Rise of Soviet Navy led to renewed USAF interest in counter-sea ops & cooperation with USN, & increased USN acceptance of USAF roles
Internal budgetary pressures & outside stimuli drove the Navy to continue to cede to the USAF primacy in important support programs
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--25--
1970s: Context for USN-USAF Relations |
CNA |
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1970s: TOA $ by U.S. Military Department |
CNA |
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--26--
1970s: U.S. Service Active Duty Personnel |
CNA |
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1970s: The U.S. Air Force (I) |
CNA |
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USAF post-Vietnam War deployment strategy:
USAF tactical aircraft (TACAIR) in ready forward Europe/WESTPAC garrisons
Strategic forces in ready continental United States (CONUS) garrisons
Frequent alerts, surges & other exercises
Heavy & increasing USAF purchases of newly-developed F-15 Eagles, F-16 Fighting Falcons, A-10 Warthogs
E-3A Sentry Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) aircraft introduced (1977)
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--27--
1970s: The U.S. Air Force (II) |
CNA |
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Continued heavy influence of strategic bomber pilots within USAF
Shift in USAF analytical focus from East Asia to Central Europe
CSAF Gen David Jones created Air Staff "Checkmate" division (1976)
Analysis of Soviet thinking & ops, & optimal use of US airpower vs. Soviets at operational level of war
Focus on centralized management of air battlespace
No US Air Force officers assigned to command regional joint unified commands
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1970s: U.S. Air Force Basic Doctrine (I) |
CNA |
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--28--
1970s: U.S. Air Force Basic Doctrine (II) |
CNA |
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1970s: U.S. Navy Capstone Documents |
CNA |
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Little or no mention of USAF contributions, capabilities, or limitations in USN capstone strategy, policy & concept documents of the decade
"Project SIXTY," "Missions of the Navy," NWP 1 Strategic Concepts of the U. S. Navy, Sea Plan 2000, Future of US Sea Power
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--29--
1970s: USN-USAF Staff Relationships |
CNA |
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DoD-wide "Total Force Concept" instituted (1970)
Greater Reserve/Guard participation in service missions
Based on successful USAF concept
Navy had opposed; maintained most Navy missions required active forces only
Limited but path-breaking USN-USAF Memoranda of Agreement (MOAs)
1971, 1974, 1975, 1979
Mostly re: Strategic Air Command (SAC) B-52 mine laying, air refueling, anti-surface warfare, surveillance ops
CNO ADM Elmo Zumwalt initiative to qualify USAF units on USN carriers (1972)
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1970s: USN-USAF Operational Relationships |
CNA |
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De-conflicted but not integrated or centralized USN & USAF air operations over Vietnam (through 1973)
Same "route package" system used in Korea
USN-USAF inter-service relations less bitter than Korea
More mutual respect & deference
USAF still chafed at lack of unity of command
USN 6th Fleet supported USAF Operation Nickel Grass resupply of Israel during Yom Kippur War (1973)
USAF helicopters replaced air wing, operated from USN carrier USS Midway during evacuation of Saigon (1975)
USN-USAF-USMC SS Mayaguez rescue op (1975)
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--30--
1970s: USN-USAF Operational Relationships |
CNA |
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B-52 Indian Ocean & Gulf maritime surveillance ops from Guam (1979)
Coordinated USAF, USN Southwest Asia (SWA) deployments (1979)
USAF F-15s, E-3 AWACS, USN carrier Constellation to Saudi Arabia & Persian Gulf, to demonstrate US support to Saudis in response to war in Yemen
Disastrous joint "Desert One" Iran hostages failed Operation Eagle Claw rescue operation (1980)
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1970s: USN-USAF Operational Relationships |
CNA |
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Near Term Prepositioning Force (NTPF) support for USAF Tactical Fighter Squadron (TFS) deployments in Southwest Asia (SWA) contingencies
Continued USN MSC operation of missile range instrumentation ships (AGMs) in support of USAF missile test data-gathering programs
Continued USN at-sea astronaut recovery ops (1961-1975)
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--31--
1970s: Exercise and Training Relationships |
CNA |
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1970s: Tactical Aviation Relationships |
CNA |
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US naval aviation continued to refine its capabilities & Tactics, Techniques & Procedures (TTP) for autonomous strike, anti-air warfare (AAW) campaigns
USAF frustration with Vietnam War air ops command divisions (including naval aviation operational autonomy)
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--32--
1970s: Electronic Warfare Relationships |
CNA |
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Electronic warfare (EW) aircraft jam enemy radars & enable Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD)
USN introduced EA-6B Prowler (1971)
USAF flying EB-66 Destroyer (through 1976)
USAF invested heavily in low-observable, reduced signature "stealth" technology for its future tactical & strategic combat aircraft
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1970s: Aerial Refueling Relationships |
CNA |
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Incompatible USN, USAF air refueling systems
USN, USAF TAC "probe & drogue" (flexible, multi-aircraft)
USAF "flying boom" (Hi fuel flow rate to SAC bombers)
Successful limited USAF KC-135 Stratotanker "probe & drogue" support of USN TACAIR in Vietnam (1960s-70s)
SECDEF Schlesinger directive that USAF SAC tankers refuel USN, USMC transoceanic aircraft flights (1975)
USN-USAF Aerial Refueling Systems Advisory Group (ARSAG) created (1978)
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--33--
1970s: Strategic Nuclear Relationships (I) |
CNA |
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1970s: Strategic Nuclear Relationships (II) |
CNA |
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--34--
1970s: Airlift Relationships |
CNA |
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USN kept a land-based intra-theater airlift role
SECDEF Schlesinger sought to consolidate all service Operational Support Aircraft (OSA) under USAF (1974)
Congress overruled the administration
CNO designated Chief of Naval Reserve (CHNAVRES) as Navy Executive Agent for Navy airlift (1977)
Unified Command Plan designated MAC as a Specified Command (1977)
Joint Deployment Agency (JDA) created (1979)
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1970s: Space Relationships |
CNA |
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Change in DOD space policy (1970)
All services allowed to develop new space systems
USAF had had sole responsibility (since 1961)
USAF still predominant US service in Space
USN pushed forward immediately to develop ocean surveillance, tactical FLTSATCOM & TIMATION systems
High USN use of USAF space systems
E.g., "Slow Walker" use of USAF Defense Support Program (DSP) satellites to track closing Soviet aircraft
Modest USN funding of some USN space systems
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--35--
1970s: Systems Relationships |
CNA |
|
USAF Tactical Air Command (TAC) flying USN-developed A-7 Corsair II, F-4 Phantom II aircraft
USAF lightweight Fighter Program spawned 2 competitive designs (YF-16 & YF-17)
USN adapted USAF-developed AGM-65 Maverick air-to-ground missile
|
|
1970s: Basing Relationships |
CNA |
|
USN took over USAF Kindley Field in Bermuda (Renamed NAS Bermuda) (1970)
Naval Ordnance Test Unit (NOTU)--which supports test launches of US Navy submarine-
launched ballistic missiles ~ moved headquarters from Patrick Air Force Base to Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (1977).
|
|
--36--
|
CNA |
|
|
|
1980s: USN-USAF Relationship: Bottom Lines |
CNA |
|
Both cooperation & rivalry persisted
Continued growth of Soviet Navy led to increased USAF counter-sea roles
Congressional & public dissatisfaction with perceived failings of inter-service cooperation resulted in stronger roles for Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Unified & Specified commanders (1986 Goldwater-Nichols Act (GNA))
USN resisted subordination to joint--& therefore potentially USAF--commanders--to little avail
USCENTCOM, USTRANSCOM, USSPACECOM, USSOCCOM created, against USN opposition
|
|
--37--
1980s: USN-USAF Relationship: Bottom Lines |
CNA |
|
Navy continued to resist--- & ignore--USAF-led joint policies re: command & control of air operations
Navy pleased with itself, its strategy & its systems
New aggressive USAF strategic thinking developing, as leadership shifted from bomber pilots to fighter pilots
|
|
1980s: Context for USN-USAF Relations |
CNA |
|
|
|
--38--
1980s: TOA $ by U.S. Military Department |
CNA |
|
|
|
1980s: US Service Active Duty Personnel |
CNA |
|
|
|
--39--
1980s: The U.S. Air Force (I) |
CNA |
|
USAF deployment strategy
TACAIR in ready forward Europe/WESTPAC garrisons Strategic forces in ready CONUS garrisons
Frequent alert, surge & other exercises
New aircraft types introduced
Continued heavy USAF purchases of new F-15s, F-16s, A-10s
Air-launched & ground-launched nuclear cruise missiles deployed (ALCM, GLCM)
|
|
1980s: The U.S. Air Force (II) |
CNA |
|
Increasing leadership role in USAF for fighter community vice bomber community
Continued TAC use of USN-designed aircraft
No US Air Force officers assigned to command regional joint unified commands
|
|
--40--
1980s: The U.S. Air Force (III) |
CNA |
|
Air University created Center for Aerospace Doctrine, Research & Education (CADRE) (1983)
Evolution of Air Staff "Checkmate" Division focus
|
|
1980s: U.S. Air Force Doctrine and Concepts (I) |
CNA |
|
Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the United States Air Force (AFM 1-1) (1984)
Col John Warden USAF, The Air Campaign (1988)
Stimulated in part by advent of The Maritime Strategy
Themes: Airpower dominance; airpower-centered approach to warfare
Independent air ops yield potentially decisive effects
Short, powerful, simultaneous air attacks on centers of gravity, especially leadership
|
|
--41--
1980s: U.S. Air Force Doctrine and Concepts (II) |
CNA |
|
|
|
1980s: U.S Navy Capstone Documents |
CNA |
|
|
|
--42--
1980s: USN-USAF Staff Relationships (I) |
CNA |
|
|
|
1980s: USN-USAF Staff Relationships (II) |
CNA |
|
USN components under new USAF general officer-led joint operational functional commands
NAVSPACECOM under new USSPACECOM (1985)
MSC under new USTRANSCOM (1987)
USN had opposed creation of both commands, and subordination of Navy component commands. Overruled.
New US Special Operations Command (USSOCCOM created (1987)
Brief OPNAV (OP-603)--Air Staff strategy office Action Officer exchange (mid-decade)
|
|
--43--
1980s: USN-USAF Staff Relationships (III) |
CNA |
|
De-confliction of Navy & Air Force theater component commander war plans
Development of a large corpus of joint doctrine, TTP
Joint air doctrine often ignored by Navy
|
|
1980s: USN-USAF Operational Relationships |
CNA |
|
Small-scale joint operations: Grenada, Libya, Persian Gulf, Panama
Goldwater-Nichols Act strengthened CINC ability to coordinate & integrate subordinate service components (1986)
USAF TAC Combat Air Patrol (CAP) over USN SSNs during Arctic Ice Ops, vs. Soviet recce
|
|
--44--
1980s: USN-USAF Operational Relationships |
CNA |
|
USN Military Sealift Command (MSC) deployed prepositioning ships forward with USAF munitions
Continued MSC operation of missile range instrumentation ship USNS Observation Island (T-
AGM 23) & other ships in support of USAF missile test data-gathering programs
New York Air National Guard (ANG) 109th Airlift Wing began flying search and rescue (SAR) missions as part of long-running (since 1955) USN-led Operation Deep Freeze in Antarctica, supporting US scientific activities
|
|
1980s: USN-USAF Operational Relationships |
CNA |
|
|
|
--45--
1980s: Exercise and Training Relationships |
CNA |
|
Heavy USAF participation in USN-led maritime exercises. Especially maritime-equipped B-52s
USN Naval War College (NWC) Global War Games include USAF players
Continued Navy-USAF pilot exchanges: Squadron & flight instructor duty & test pilot schools, war college exchanges
|
|
1980s: Tactical Aviation Relationships (I) |
CNA |
|
Further refinement of US naval aviation Tactics, Techniques & Procedures (TTP)
To conduct autonomous strike & AAW campaigns on NATO flanks & NE Asia; and small-scale contingency strikes
De-confliction with USAF as necessary
Close cooperation in Pacific theater
Navy tactical aircraft accident rate reduced to level comparable to that of USAF
|
|
--46--
1980s: Tactical Aviation Relationships (II) |
CNA |
|
|
|
1980s: Electronic Warfare Relationships |
CNA |
|
USN continued to fly EA-6B Prowler
USAF introduced EF-111 Raven (1983)
USAF deployed stealthy F-117 Nighthawk tactical fighter-bombers & B-2 Spirit long-range bombers
SECDEF & OSD directed development of Navy stealthy Advanced Tactical Aircraft (ATA)
|
|
--47--
1980s: Strategic Nuclear Relationships |
CNA |
|
Strategic nuclear deterrent triad continued
US nuclear force operational command structure remained divided among SAC, USLANTCOM, USPACOM, USEUCOM
Navy Ocean Surveillance Information System (OSIS) continued to feed offshore Soviet Yankee SSBN threat data to SAC
|
|
1980s: Aerial Refueling Relations |
CNA |
|
Abortive US Navy land-based tanker procurement initiative (1984-6)
Increased USAF SAC tanker modifications to support USN aircraft
New USAF KC-10 Extender tanker employed both booms and hoses & drogues, to service both services' (and allied) aircraft (from 1981)
Despite increased USN use of USAF tankers, still some USN operator antipathy to the practice
|
|
--48--
1980s: Space Relationships (I) |
CNA |
|
|
|
1980s: Space Relationships (II) |
CNA |
|
Continued high Navy demand for and use of USAF space systems
Navy was assigned Alternate Space Control Center (ASCC) mission (1987)
Continued modest Navy funding of space systems
USAF launched 1st Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites (from 1988)
|
|
--49--
1980s: Systems Relationships (I) |
CNA |
|
Strategic Air Command declared six B-52 squadrons capable of maritime surveillance & mining
Two USAF B-52G squadrons fully Harpoon-
capable for anti-surface warfare (ASUW) (1985-1989)
Commander-in-Chief, US Atlantic Command (USLANTCOM) ADM Baggett successfully argued for retention of USAF SR-71 Blackbird reconnaissance aircraft, for surveillance of Kola Peninsula and approaches (1988)
|
|
1980s: Systems Relationships (II) |
CNA |
|
USAF adoption of Navy-developed High-speed Anti-Radiation Missile (HARM)
USAF developed, built up arsenal of precision-guided munitions (PGMs)
New Navy Advanced Tactical Aircraft (ATA)
New USAF Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF)
USAF developed, tested prototypes (later became F-22 Raptor)
Navy funded study & initial development of Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF) variant (1986)
|
|
--50--
1990s: USN-USAF Relations |
CNA |
|
|
|
1990s: USN-USAF Relationship: Bottom Lines |
CNA |
|
Strengthened Goldwater-Nichols Act roles for the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the unified commanders became the new joint norm
Demise of Soviet Union & Soviet Navy shifted interest in both services toward shore target strike operations & capabilities, and forward presence; away from strategic deterrence, sea control & counter-sea ops & capabilities
USN-USAF cooperation increased across the board; rivalry eased
Contentious issues still surfaced, however
|
|
--51--
1990s: USN-USAF Relationship: Bottom Lines |
CNA |
|
1991 Desert Storm experience a powerful wake-up call for the Navy
Navy suddenly not pleased with itself, its strategy, its systems, & its operational performance
Navy sought to improve throughout the decade, including closer cooperation--and integration--with joint--- and USAF--policies & procedures
Closer integration into USAF Air Tasking Order (ATO)
USAF primary tanking source for Navy carrier aviation
USN assumed Electronic Warfare (EW) and Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) capabilities previously shared with USAF
|
|
1990s: Context for USN-USAF Relations |
CNA |
|
|
|
--52--
1990s: TOA $ by U.S. Military Department |
CNA |
|
|
|
1990s: U.S. Service Active Duty Personnel |
CNA |
|
|
|
--53--
1990s: The U.S. Air Force (I) |
CNA |
|
|
|
1990s: The U.S. Air Force (II) |
CNA |
|
E-8 Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (JSTARS) battle management & command & control aircraft introduced (1991)
B-2 Spirit stealth bomber introduced (1993)
Cruise missile reductions
Increased USAF use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
RQ-1 Predator reconnaissance UAV introduced (1995)
|
|
--54--
1990s: The U.S. Air Force (III) |
CNA |
|
|
|
1990s: The U.S. Air Force (IV) |
CNA |
|
National defense policy favored short-range TACAIR over long-range bombers
Heavy influence of TACAIR pilots within USAF
Still no US Air Force officers assigned to command regional joint unified commands
|
|
--55--
1990s: The U.S. Air Force (V) |
CNA |
|
|
|
1990s: The U.S. Air Force (VI) |
CNA |
|
|
|
--56--
1990s: The U.S. Air Force (VII) |
CNA |
|
|
|
1990s: USAF Capstone Publications (I) |
CNA |
|
SECAF Rice, Global Reach-Global Power (1990)
Published before Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm
Top-down Pentagon-created guidance
Inspired in part by success of The Maritime Strategy
AFM 1-1, Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the United States Air Force (1992)
Global Reach--Global Power: The Evolving Air Force Contribution to National Security (1992)
|
|
--57--
|
1990s: USAF Capstone Publications (II) |
CNA |
|
SECAF Widnall & CSAF Gen Fogelman, Global Presence (1995)
SECAF Widnall & CSAF Gen Fogelman, Global Engagement: A Vision for the 21st Century Air Force (1996)
Emphasized Air Campaigns & US Air Force strategic role in conventional war
Emphasis on space operations
Complex, Air Force-wide development process
AFDD 1, Air Force Basic Doctrine (1997)
SECAF Peters & CSAF Gen Ryan, America's Air Force Vision 2020: Global Vigilance, Reach & Power (2000)
|
|
1990s: U.S. Air Force Visions and Doctrine |
CNA |
|
USAF Scientific Advisory Board, New World Vistas: Air and Space Power for the 21st Century (1995)
Air University, Air Force 2025 (1996)
AFDD 2-1.4 Countersea Operations (1999)
|
|
--58--
1990s: U.S. Navy Capstone Documents |
CNA |
|
Periodic mention of USAF contributions, capabilities, limitations or dependence on US naval power in USN capstone strategy, policy & concept documents of the decade
|
|
1990s: USN-USAF Staff Relationships |
CNA |
|
Routine Navy & Air Force (NAVAF) Board mtgs
USN-USAF conceptual issues
USN derided USAF concept of "virtual presence"
USAF decried Navy claims of autonomous at-sea operations, rapid response
SECDEF designated USAF-dominated US Transportation Command as combatant commander & single-manager for all Defense Department transportation assets, in peace & war
|
|
--59--
1990s: USN-USAF Operational Relationships |
CNA |
|
Major integrated air operations by both services throughout the decade, especially over:
Iraq (Operations Desert Storm, Southern Watch, etc.)
The former Yugoslavia (Operations Deliberate Force, Allied Force, etc.)
Increasing USN dependence on USAF E-3 Sentry AWACS support in Iraq (Operations Desert Storm, Southern Watch)
Increasing USAF dependence on USN/USMC EA-6B Prowler support for electronic warfare
Continued forward USN Military Sealift Command (MSC) prepositioning of USAF munitions
|
|
1990s: USN-USAF Operational Relationships |
CNA |
|
Converted T-AGOS ship USNS Invincible redesignated as missile range instrumentation ship (T-AGM-24). MSC to operate in continued support of USAF missile test data-gathering programs (Apr 2000)
New York Air National Guard (ANG) 109th Airlift Wing took over Operation Deep Freeze US Antarctica scientific program military support mission from USN units (1996-1999)
|
|
--60--
1990s: Exercise Relationships |
CNA |
|
USN exercised joint air operations using Air Force-driven joint doctrine
USN developed, tested "JFACC afloat" & sea-based Joint Air Operations Center (JAOC) capabilities
|
|
1990s: Education and Training Relationships |
CNA |
|
Increased joint USN-USAF education & training consolidation
USN/USAF developed common primary trainer aircraft
USN/USAF consolidated Naval Flight Officer (NFO) & some USAF combat systems officer training at NAS Pensacola (from 1994)
Continued Navy-USAF pilot exchanges: Squadron & flight instructor duty & test pilot schools, war college exchanges
|
|
--61--
|
|
1990s: USN-USAF TACAIR Relationships (I) |
CNA |
|
Operation Desert Storm: Navy surprised & chagrined to be (by CINC direction):
Directed by USAF-led Joint Forces Air Component Commander (JFACC), supported by a largely USAF staff
Subsumed within centralized USAF-designed joint Air Tasking Order (ATO), by CINC direction
USN unfamiliar with JFACC, ATO processes, unable to link to USAF Computer-Assisted Force Management System (CAFMS)
USN dependent on scarce USAF tanker refueling
USAF tended to downplay capabilities of USN BGM-109 Tomahawk land-attack (TLAM) cruise missiles
But Navy contributions real: Ops, intel, SEAD
|
|
1990s: USN-USAF TACAIR Relationships (II) |
CNA |
|
Post-Desert Storm: Increasingly tight US naval aviation joint integration IAW USAF-led doctrine & tactics, techniques & procedures (TTP)
USN adapted rapidly to USAF-led doctrine & TTP, in wake of Operation Desert Storm (e.g., improved Air Tasking Order (ATO) processing, improved Combined Air Operations Center (CAOC) participation by Naval and Amphibious Liaison Elements (NALEs))
Operations Northern Watch & Southern Watch over Iraq acted as laboratories for increasing USN-USAF TTP cooperation & coordination
USN still critical of JFACC concept, concerned at rigidity of ATO in joint NATO strike operation Deliberate Force (strike ops vs. Bosnian Serbs)
Increased USAF & USN strike precision
|
|
--62--
1990s: Electronic Warfare Relationships (I) |
CNA |
|
|
|
1990s: Electronic Warfare Relationships (II) |
CNA |
|
|
|
--63--
1990s: Electronic Warfare Relationships (III) |
CNA |
|
|
|
1990s: Aerial Refueling Relationships |
CNA |
|
|
|
--64--
1990s: Strategic Nuclear Relationships (I) |
CNA |
|
USN SSBN forces finally placed under operational command of a joint unified commander: USCINCSTRAT (1992)
Reduced USAF focus on nuclear deterrence mission, forces
USN nuclear deterrence focus unchanged
|
|
1990s: Strategic Nuclear Relationships (II) |
CNA |
|
|
|
--65--
1990s: Airlift Relationships |
CNA |
|
Increasing USN dependence on USAF for long-haul airlift of critical parts, supplies, personnel
Land-based intra-theater airlift issues
Commission on Roles & Missions (CORM) recommended reduction & assignment of most USN Operational Support Airlift (OSA) aircraft to USAF, to be managed by USTRANSCOM(1995)
USN sought to retain admin & operational authority over USN OSA aircraft, under USN fleet commanders
DEPSECDEF (former CORM chairman) transferred scheduling authority in CONUS for USN OSA aircraft to USCINCTRANS(1996)
Scheduling authority for overseas theater USN OSA transferred to geographical unified commanders (1996)
USN retained ADCON over OSA VR squadrons & aircraft
|
|
1990s: Space Relationships (I) |
CNA |
|
Continued high USN use of USAF space systems
Continued modest USN funding of space systems
USN "leverage" strategy to influence USAF decisions
USAF favored & Navy opposed designation of Space as a CINC Area of Responsibility (AOR) for USCINCSPACE
|
|
--66--
1990s: Space Relationships (II) |
CNA |
|
USAF-led Global Positioning System (GPS) operational; joint use in Desert Storm
USAF passed FLTSATCOM control to Navy
Navy & USAF developing UHF Follow-On to replace FLTSATCOM
National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) intel flow increased to all services, including Navy
|
|
1990s: USN-USAF Systems Relationships (I) |
CNA |
|
Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program
USAF continued development. Chose Lockheed prototype. Became F-22 Raptor
Navy terminated Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF) variant development due to weight, cost, complexity issues (1991)
USAF-USN Joint Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) program (from 1993)
Atrophy of USAF capabilities to support maritime campaigns
|
|
--67--
1990s: USN-USAF Systems Relationships (II) |
CNA |
|
Navy developed, built up stocks of precision-guided munitions (PGMs)
Joint Navy-USAF development of weapons systems:
AGM-154 Joint Stand-off Weapon (JSOW-A)
AGM-158 Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile (JASSM)
AIM-120 Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missile (AMRAAM)
GBU-31/32/38 Joint Direct Action Munition (JDAM)
USN deployed USAF-developed Low Altitude Navigation & Targeting Infrared for Night (LANTIRN) pod system on USN F-14s (1997)
|
|
1990s: USN-USAF Meteorological Relationships |
CNA |
|
|
|
--68--
2000s: USN-USAF Relations |
CNA |
|
|
|
2000s: USN-USAF Relationship: Bottom Lines |
CNA |
|
|
|
--69--
2000s: USN-USAF Relationship: Bottom Lines |
CNA |
|
Commonality of USN & USAF experience supporting ongoing Southwest Asia ground-centric COIN ops helped forge commonality of outlook & interest
Rise of China & People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN)--as well as continued development of Iranian capabilities--sparked renewed interest in both services in air defense, sea control, and counter-sea operations & capabilities
Decade ended with development of a classified USN-USAF "Air-Sea Battle concept"
Evolving world situation put a premium on USN-USAF counters to others' Anti-Access/Area Denial (A2AD) capabilities
|
|
--70--
2000s: TOA $ bv U.S. Military Department |
CNA |
|
|
|
2000s: U.S. Service Active Duty Personnel |
CNA |
|
|
|
--71--
2000s: Popular views: Service importance |
CNA |
|
|
Navy |
Air Force |
Marines |
Army |
2001 |
15% |
42 |
14 |
18 |
2002 |
17 |
36 |
16 |
18 |
2004 |
9 |
23 |
23 |
25 |
2007 |
9 |
28 |
20 |
39 |
2008 |
10 |
26 |
22 |
38 |
2009 |
10 |
30 |
19 |
35 |
2010 |
12 |
30 |
18 |
36 |
|
|
2000s: Popular views: Service prestige |
CNA |
|
|
Navy |
Air Force |
Marines |
Army |
2001 |
14% |
32 |
36 |
11 |
2002 |
13 |
28 |
39 |
13 |
2004 |
8 |
20 |
44 |
15 |
2007 |
7 |
25 |
53 |
13 |
2008 |
9 |
30 |
49 |
10 |
2009 |
7 |
27 |
55 |
10 |
2010 |
8 |
27 |
55 |
9 |
|
|
--72--
2000s: The U.S. Air Force (I) |
CNA |
|
Continued decline in USAF aircraft inventories
F-22 Raptor fighter introduced (2005)
Few new USAF purchases
USAF fleet age increased; F-22 buy ended (2009)
No new bomber produced since 1997
Replacement tanker aircraft acquisition difficulties, scandals & delays
USAF forward TACAIR bases in Central Asia
|
|
2000s: The US Air Force (II) |
CNA |
|
|
|
--73--
2000s: The U.S. Air Force (III) |
CNA |
|
Continued heavy influence of TACAIR pilots within USAF leadership
Institutionalization within joint thinking of USAF-originated Effects Based Operations (EBO) concepts
Many USN commanders bought into the concept
Elicited push-back, however, from USMC commanders
USAF generals finally assigned to command overseas regional joint unified commands
Gen Ralston (CDRUSEUCOM, 2000-2003)
Gen Fraser (CDRUSSOUTHCOM, from 2009)
|
|
2000s: The U.S. Air Force (V) |
CNA |
|
|
|
--74--
2000s: USAF Capstone Documents (I) |
CNA |
|
SECAF Peters & CSAF Gen Ryan, America's Air Force Vision 2020: Global Vigilance, Reach & Power (2000)
Air Force Basic Doctrine (AFDD 1) (2003) CSAF Gen Moseley, U.S. Air Force Vision (2006)
Air Force Strategic Plan, 2006-2008 (Oct 2006)
CSAF Gen Moseley, The Nation's Guardians: America's 21st Century Air Force (Dec 2007)
USAF strategy for next 2 decades
Continued "global vigilance, reach & power" theme
Response (in part) to USN-USMC-USCG A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower (2007) & to earlier drafts of CNA study U.S. Navy Capstone Strategies & Concepts (1970-2009)
|
|
2000s: USAF Capstone Documents (II) |
CNA |
|
Operations and Organization (AFDD 2) (2007)
United States Air Force Global Partnership Strategy: Building Partnerships for the 21st Century (2008)
Lt Gen Deptula, Lead Turning the Future: The 2008 Strategy for United States Air Force Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (2008)
Securing the High Ground: Dominant Combat Air Force for America: 2008 Combat Air Force Strategic Plan (July 2008)
SECAF Donley & CSAF Gen Schwartz, 2008 Air Force Strategic Plan (Oct 2008)
|
|
--75--
|
|
2000s: USAF Capstone Documents (III) |
CNA |
|
Lt Gen Deptula, Lead Turning the Future: The Vision & Strategy for United States Air Force Intelligence, Surveillance & Reconnaissance (2010)
CSAF Gen Schwartz, CSAF's Vector: The Way Ahead (Jul 2010)
Securing the High Ground: Agile Combat Air Power: 2010 Combat Air Force Strategic Plan (Sep 2010))
Gen (Ret) Shaud, Air Force Strategy Study 2020-2030(2010)
Also:
AFDD 2-3, Irregular Warfare (Aug 2007)
The 21st Century Air Force: Irregular Warfare Strategy (Jan 2009)
|
|
2000s: U.S. Air Force Maritime Doctrine, TTP |
CNA |
|
USAF updated & published Countersea Operations AFDD 2-1.4 (2005)
AOMSW: Multi-Service Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Air Operations in Maritime Surface Warfare NTTP 3-20.8/AFTTP(I) 3-2.74 (Nov 2008)
Published by
Commander Navy Warfare Development Command (NWDC)
Commander, (USAF) Curtis E. Lemay Center for Doctrine Development & Education
|
|
--76--
|
|
2000s: U.S. Navy Capstone Documents |
CNA |
|
Only brief mention of USAF contributions, capabilities, limitations, or dependence on US naval power in most USN capstone strategy, policy & concept documents of the decade
But USAF capabilities very well-integrated into Naval Operating Concept for Joint Operations (NOCJO) (2006)
No mention of USAF in A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower (2007)
Brief mention in The Naval Operations Concept (2010) & NDP 1 Naval Warfare (2010)
|
|
2000s: USN-USAF Staff Relationships (I) |
CNA |
|
Counter-insurgency ground wars in Afghanistan and Iraq (2001-2010 and beyond), were dominated by U.S. Army & U.S. Marine Corps ground & air support forces.
Navy & Air Force found common ground in need to develop & achieve acceptance of:
Roles for Navy & Air Force aviation in counter-insurgency (COIN) doctrine & operations
Deterrent, engagement & operational roles for significant US forces--chiefly Navy & Air Force--in the vital and dynamically changing US Pacific Command Area of Responsibility (AOR)
Continuing need for a robust modernized strategic nuclear force
|
|
--77--
2000s: USN-USAF Staff Relationships (II) |
CNA |
|
Emerging anti-access capabilities abroad led to measures to improve the viability of USAF TACAIR & carrier aviation
New look at virtues of USAF long-range bombers
Multi-service agreement on command relationships for forward Navy Aegis BMD ships (2010)
|
|
2000s: USN-USAF Staff Relationships (III) |
CNA |
|
SECDEF suggested "100-Wing Air Force" to complement "1000-Ship Navy" (2009)
Formal annual USN-USAF Warfighter Talks program ongoing (from c.2000)
CNO ADM Vern Clark created Naval Operations Group (OPNAV Deep Blue) based in part on his perceptions of USAF Air Staff "Checkmate" Division roles (2001)
Close OPNAV Deep Blue-- Air Staff Checkmate relations in early, mid-decade
|
|
--78--
2000s: USN-USAF Staff Relationships (IV) |
CNA |
|
Retired US Navy captain James Roche served as Secretary of the Air Force (2001-2005)
Retired USAF general H.T. Johnson served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Acting Secretary of the Navy (2001-5)
DoD, Aircraft Investment Plan: Fiscal Years (FY) 2011-2040 (Feb 2010)
|
|
2000s: USN-USAF Staff Relationships (V) |
CNA |
|
|
|
--79--
|
|
2000s: USN-USAF Staff Relationships (VI) |
CNA |
|
|
|
2000s: USN-USAF Operational Relationships |
CNA |
|
|
|
--80--
2000s: USN-USAF Operational Relationships |
CNA |
|
USN continued to develop & test "JFACC afloat" & sea-based Joint Air Operations Center (JAOC) capabilities
USAF B-52 Stratofortress, B-1B Lancer and B-2A Spirit strategic bombers comprised nation's only high-volume sea mining capability
Modest USN P-3C Orion & FI'A18 Hornet/Super Hornet airborne sea mine delivery capability
No USN surface mine-laying capability
USN phasing out submarine-launched mobile mines (SLMM)(by2012)
|
|
2000s: USN-USAF Operational Relationships |
CNA |
|
Navy temporarily assumed USAF OEF missions when USAF F-15 Eagles grounded (2007)
USAF units embarked on Navy High Speed Vessel Swift (HSV2) during USSOUTHCOM Southern Partnership Station ops in Caribbean
US Navy rescue and salvage ship USNS Grasp (T-ARS 51) recovered two USAF F-15C Eagle fighters from Gulf of Mexico (2008)
|
|
--81--
2000s: USN-USAF Operational Relationships |
CNA |
|
Navy P-3C use of USAF-run Forward Operating Location (FOL) at Manta, Ecuador
USAF support for USN Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD) system satellite shoot-down (2008)
Continued Navy dependence on USAF for E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft support
Continued USN Military Sealift Command (MSC) afloat forward prepositioning of USAF munitions
|
|
2000s: Exercise and Training Relationships (I) |
CNA |
|
|
|
--82--
2000s: Exercise and Training Relationships (II) |
CNA |
|
Other joint USN-USAF exercises, e.g.,
Valiant Shield
Vigilant Shield (2010)
US Northern Command Northern Edge exercises
US Navy participation in USAF-Japanese Air Self Defense Force (JASDF) Cope North exercises
USAF Special Tactics Squadron (STS) exercised rescue ops from ballistic missile submarine USS Alabama (SSBN-731), acting as surrogate cruise missile submarine (SSGN) (2005)
Continued Navy-USAF pilot exchanges: Squadron & flight instructor duty & test pilot schools, war college exchanges
|
|
2000s: Exercise and Training Relationships (III) |
CNA |
|
Increased information, personnel & aircraft exchanges between Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center (NSAWC) Naval Air Station (Fallon NV) & Air Force Weapons School (Nellis AFB NV)
Continued joint USN-USAF education & training consolidation
Eglin AFB Florida ranges replaced NAS Roosevelt Roads & Vieques for USN strike training
Base Realignment & Closure Commission (BRAC) 2005 report mandated Joint Strike Fighter (F-35) integrated training center be established at Eglin AFB
But USN VT-4 deactivated at Pensacola (2010)
|
|
--83--
2000s: USAF Maritime Exercise |
CNA |
|
USAF Operation Rex Redux (Aug 2007)
3-plane B-52 flight surveillance exercise over North Atlantic, targeting USNS Maritime Prepositioning Ship (MPS)
Major USAF public affairs campaign
Deliberately reminiscent of US Army Air Corps 3-plane B-17 flight surveillance exercise in North Atlantic targeting Italian liner Rex (1938)
Viewed in US Navy (and by some others) as a parochial public relations stunt
Viewed by many in USAF as a way to revive USAF counter-sea warfare capabilities, to find & attack ships at sea
|
|
2000s: USN-USAF TACAIR Relationships |
CNA |
|
|
|
--84--
2000s: Electronic Warfare Relationships (I) |
CNA |
|
USN, USMC EA-6B Prowler continued as sole US national tactical electronic attack capability
Supported Air Expeditionary Forces (AEFs) as well as USN, USMC units
USAF continued to provide some crews
USN transitioning from EA-6B Prowler to EA-18G Growler EW aircraft
|
|
2000s: Electronic Warfare Relationships (II) |
CNA |
|
|
|
--85--
2000s: Strategic Nuclear Relationships |
CNA |
|
SECDEF Gates criticized USAF leaders re: serious nuclear systems security lapses (2008)
SECDEF appointed USN ADM Donald to investigate USAF nuclear weapons security lapses (2008)
USAF activated Global Strike Command (2009)
|
|
2000s: Airlift Relationships |
CNA |
|
Modernization of USN Operational Support Aircraft (OSA) fleet
Continued USN dependence on USAF for
Continued CDR USTRANSCOM integration of sealift & airlift
|
|
--86--
2000s: Aerial Refueling Relationships |
CNA |
|
|
|
2000s: Space Relationships |
CNA |
|
|
|
--87--
2000s: USN-USAF Systems Relationships (I) |
CNA |
|
USN & USAF phased in jointly-developed T-6B Texan II as common primary trainer aircraft
Cobra Judy Replacement (CJR) ballistic missile-tracking radar program transferred from USAF to USN (2002)
New USN missile range instrumentation ship USNS Howard O. Lorenzen (T-AGM 23) christened. MSC to operate as CJR radar platform to support USAF missile tracking programs (Jun 2010)
|
|
2000s: USN-USAF Systems Relationships (II) |
CNA |
|
USN Broad Area Maritime Surveillance Unmanned Aerial System (BAMS UAS) program derived from USAF RQ-4 unmanned ISR Global Hawk aircraft
USN chose USAF-developed Global Hawk as BAMS UAS (2008)
CNO-CSAF MOA maximizing commonalities, interoperability, joint efficiencies (Jun 2010)
USN, USAF to buy common ground control stations
USAF Global Hawk first flew in 1998
USN BAMS UAS to operate in 2015
USAF support of Navy Unmanned Carrier-Based Surveillance & Strike System (UCLASS) program
Plans for Navy to transfer 4 MQ-9 Reaper "Saber Focus" UAVs to USAF in 2011 (2010)
|
|
--88--
2000s: USN-USAF Systems Relationships (III) |
CNA |
|
USN, USAF, USMC continued co-development of F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) variants
Joint GBU Laser-Guided Bomb (LGB) development; USAF lead
Joint Precision Approach and Landing System (JPALS) development; Navy lead
USN, USAF merged Joint Tactical Radio System (JTRS) procurement programs
|
|
2000s: USN-USAF Systems Relationships (IV) |
CNA |
|
USN-USAF Service Life Extension Program (SLEP) modifications on Navy E-6B Mercury "TACAMO" strategic command & control aircraft (2010)
Low-level USN & USAF interest in long-range conventional ballistic missile development (for "prompt global strike")
|
|
-89---
2000s: USN-USAF Systems Relationships (V) |
CNA |
|
|
|
2000s: USN-USAF Basing Relationships |
CNA |
|
|
|
--90--
|
CNA |
|
 |
|
Drivers: Toward Cooperation ... or Rivalry |
CNA |
|
Cooperation has its benefits
So does competition
Why have the services cooperated? Why have they not?
Analyzing the data yields many drivers
Competition and rivalry occur when their drivers are more prominent
The same is true for integration and cooperation
From the record presented, these drivers can be identified ...
|
|
--91--
The Drivers: Patterns in the Data |
CNA |
|
|
|
Drivers Toward Cooperation and Integration (I) |
CNA |
|
Conceptual & operational
Recognized need to fight common enemies
Nature of perceived enemies, target sets
Need to meet common emerging challenges
Specific operational requirements
Need to use systems developed by each other
Common American cultural traits of "can do" & cooperation to get the job done
Organizational
Higher authority & congressional direction
Integrating institutions
Routine mutual exposure to each other
Recognition that jointness looks good, & inter-service rivalry doesn't sell well in most external venues
|
|
--92--
Drivers Toward Cooperation and Integration (II) |
CNA |
|
|
|
Drivers Toward Competition and Rivalry (I) |
CNA |
|
|
|
--93--
Drivers Toward Competition and Rivalry (II) |
CNA |
|
Organizational
Desire for administrative & operational control
Fears of mismanagement of forces by non-specialists
Organizational preservation & enhancement imperatives
Separate & autonomous organizational structures
Weak integrating institutions
Pressures from sister services & others to maintain the competition
Competition for scarce key joint service billet leadership assignments
|
|
Drivers Toward Competition and Rivalry (III) |
CNA |
|
|
|
--94--
Concluding Observations |
CNA |
|
|
|
Concluding Observations |
CNA |
|
The USN-USAF relationship is multi-faceted & complex
This effort tries to lay out many of the facets and untangle many of the complexities
To provide context & perspective for contemporary decision-makers, their staffs, & students & analysts of naval & military affairs
To encourage more detailed further examination & analyses by others
|
|
--95--
Selected Bibliography |
CNA |
|
|
|
Selected Bibliography (I) |
CNA |
|
Warren Trest, Air Force Roles and Missions: A History (1998)
Adrian O. Van Wyen, The Aeronautical Board: 1916-1947 (1947)
Lt. Col. John Shiner USAF, "The Air Corps, the Navy, and Coast Defense, 1919-1941," Military Affairs (Oct 1981)
Albert Nofi, To Train the Fleet for War: The U.S. Navy Fleet Problems, 1923-1940 (2010)
*See also inside back cover
|
|
--96--
Selected Bibliography (II) |
CNA |
|
William S. Hanable, Case Studies in the Use of Land-Based Aerial Forces in Maritime Operations, 1939-1990 (Air Force History & Museums Program, 1998)
Norman Polmar, "The First Land-Based ASW Aircraft," (Naval History, Jun 2000)
RADM (Ret) James A. Winnefeld & Dana J. Johnson, Joint Air Operations: Pursuit of Unity in Command & Control: 1942-1991 (RAND; Naval Institute Press, 1993)
|
|
Selected Bibliography (III) |
CNA |
|
Jeffrey G. Barlow, Revolt of the Admirals: The Fight for Naval Aviation, 1945-1950 (Naval Historical Center, 1994)
Jeffrey G. Barlow, Navy and Marine Corps Documents on Service Roles and Missions, 1946-1961 (1994)
VADM (Ret) Jerry Miller, Nuclear Weapons and Aircraft Carriers: How the Bomb Saved Naval Aviation (2001)
|
|
--97--
Selected Bibliography (IV) |
CNA |
|
CAPT (Ret) Robert Rubel, "The U.S. Navy's Transition to Jets" (Naval War College Review, Spring 2010)
Robert J. Art, The TFX Decision: McNamara and the Military (1968)
CDR James Stavridis, A New AirSea Battle Concept: Integrated Strike Forces, (National War College, May 1992)
Charles M. Perry, Laurence E. Rothenberg, Jacqueline K. Davis, Airpower Synergies in the New Strategic Era: The Complementary Roles of Long-Range Bombers & Carrier-Based Aircraft (Brassey's, 1997)
|
|
Selected Bibliography (V) |
CNA |
|
Maj Gen John Barry USAF & James Blaker, "After the Storm: The Growing Convergence of the Air Force and Navy," Naval War College Review (Autumn 2001)
Benjamin S. Lambeth, Combat Pair: The Evolution of Air Force-Navy Integration in Strike Warfare (RAND, 2007)
LTC (Ret) Andrew Krepinevich, Why AirSea Battle? (CSBA, 2010)
CAPT (Ret) Jan van Tol et al., AirSea Battle: A Point-of-Departure Operational Concept (CSBA, 2010)
|
|
--98--
Glossary |
CNA |
|
|
|
Glossary |
CNA |
|
A2AD |
Anti-access/area denial |
AAF |
Army Air Forces |
AAW |
Anti-air warfare |
ABM |
Anti-ballistic missile |
ABOT |
Al Basrah Oil Terminal |
ACC |
Air Combat Command |
ADCON |
Administrative control |
AEF |
Air and Space Expeditionary Force, Aerospace Expeditionary Force |
AFB |
Air Force Base |
AFDC |
Air Force Doctrine Center |
AFDD |
Air Force Doctrine Document |
AFM |
Air Force Manual |
AFNORTH |
Air Forces Northern |
AFRI |
Air Force Research Institute |
AG |
Miscellaneous auxiliary |
AGM |
Missile range instrumentation ship |
ALCM |
Air-launched cruise missile |
|
|
--99--
Glossary (continued) |
CNA |
|
AMC |
Air Mobility Command |
AMRAAM |
Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile |
ANG |
Air National Guard |
AOR |
Area of Responsibility |
ARSAG |
Aerial Refueling Systems Advisory Group |
ASCC |
Alternate Space Control Center |
ASUW |
Anti-surface warfare |
ASW |
Anti-submarine warfare |
ATA |
Advanced Tactical Aircraft |
ATF |
Advanced Tactical Fighter |
ATO |
Air Tasking Order |
AWACS |
Airborne Warning and Control System |
BAMS |
Broad Area Maritime Surveillance |
BMD |
Ballistic Missile Defense |
BRAC |
Base realignment and closure |
C2ISR |
Command, Control, Intelligence, Surveillance & Reconnaissance |
CADRE |
Center for Aerospace Doctrine, Research & Education |
|
|
Glossary (continued) |
CNA |
|
CAFMS |
Computer Assisted Force Management System |
CAOC |
Combined Air Operations Center |
CAP |
Combat Air Patrol |
CDR |
Commander |
CDRUSEUCOM |
Commander, U.S. European Command |
CDRUSSOUTHCOM |
Commander, U.S. Southern Command |
CHNAVRES |
Chief of Naval Reserve |
CINC |
Commander-in-Chief |
CJR |
Cobra Judy replacement |
CNA |
Center for Naval Analyses |
CNO |
Chief of Naval Operations |
CONAD |
Continental Air Defense Command |
CONMAROPS |
Concept of Maritime Operations |
CONUS |
Continental United States |
CORM |
Commission on Roles and Missions |
CSAF |
Chief of Staff of the Air Force |
CSBA |
Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments |
DEPSECDEF |
Deputy Secretary of Defense |
|
|
--100--
Glossary (continued) |
CNA |
|
DHS |
Department of Homeland Security |
DOD |
Department of Defense |
DOT |
Department of Transportation |
DPRK |
Democratic People's Republic of Korea |
DSP |
Defense Support Program |
EBO |
Effects based operations |
ELINT |
Electronic intelligence |
ETC |
Estimated Time of Completion |
EW |
Electronic warfare |
FLTSATCOM |
Fleet Satellite Communications System |
FOL |
Forward Operating Location |
FSCL |
Fire Support Coordination Line |
FY |
Fiscal Year |
GDF |
Guidance for Development of the Force |
GHQ |
General Headquarters |
GITMO |
Guantanamo Bay |
GLCM |
Ground-launched cruise missile |
GNA |
Goldwater-Nichols Act |
|
|
Glossary (continued) |
CNA |
|
GPS |
Global Positioning System
|
GRAB |
Galactic Radiation & Background
|
GSCPSU |
General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union |
HARM |
High-speed Anti-Radiation Missile |
HOA |
Horn of Africa |
ICBM |
Inter-continental ballistic missile |
INCSEA |
Incidents at Sea Agreement |
Intel |
Intelligence |
JASDF |
Japanese Air Self Defense Force |
JASSM |
Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile |
JAST |
Joint advanced strike technology |
JCS |
Joint Chiefs of Staff |
JDA |
Joint Deployment Agency |
JDAM |
Joint Direct Action Munition |
JFACC |
Joint Forces Air Component Commander |
JPALS |
Joint Precision Approach & Landing System |
JPATS |
Joint Primary Air Training System |
|
|
--101--
Glossary (continued) |
CNA |
|
JSF |
Joint strike fighter |
JSOW |
Joint stand-off weapon |
JSTPS |
Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff |
JTF |
Joint Task Force |
JTRS |
Joint Tactical Radio System |
LANTCOM |
Atlantic Command |
LANTIRN |
Low Altitude Navigation & Targeting Infrared for Night |
LGB |
Laser-Guided Bomb |
MATS |
Military Air Transport Service |
MCM |
Mine Countermeasures |
MOA |
Memorandum of Agreement |
MOU |
Memorandum of Understanding |
MPS |
Maritime Prepositioning Ship |
MSC |
Military Sealift Command |
MUOS |
Mobile User Objective System |
NA |
Net Assessment |
|
|
Glossary (continued) |
CNA |
|
NAES |
Naval Air Engineering Station |
NAF |
Naval Air Facility |
NALE |
Naval Liaison Element |
NAS |
Naval Air Station |
NATF |
Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter |
NATS |
Naval Air Transport Service |
NAVAF |
Navy-Air Force |
NAVELEX |
Naval Electronic Systems Command |
NAVSPACECOM |
Naval Space Command |
NAVSPASUR |
Naval Space Surveillance System |
NAVSTA |
Naval Station |
NAVWPNSTA |
Naval Weapons Station |
NCA |
National Command Authorities |
NDP |
Naval Doctrine Publication |
NFO |
Naval Flight Officer |
NATO |
North Atlantic Treaty Organization |
NOCJO |
Naval Operating Concept for Joint Operations |
NORAD |
North American Aerospace Defense Command |
|
|
--102--
Glossary (continued) |
CNA |
|
NPT |
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons |
NRL |
Naval Research Laboratory |
NRO |
National Reconnaissance Office |
NSAWC |
Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center |
NTPF |
Near Term Prepositioning Force |
NWC |
Naval War College |
NWP |
Naval Warfare Publication |
OEF |
Operation Enduring Freedom |
OIF |
Operation Iraqi Freedom |
OPCON |
Operational control |
OPNAV |
Office of the Chief of Naval Operations |
Ops |
Operations |
OSA |
Operational Support Aircraft |
OSD |
Office of the Secretary of Defense |
OSIS |
Ocean Surveillance Information System |
PACOM |
Pacific Command |
|
|
Glossary (continued) |
CNA |
|
PGM |
Precision-guided munitions |
PLAN |
People's Liberation Army Navy |
PMRF |
Pacific Missile Range Facility |
Pres. |
President |
PSI |
Proliferation Security Initiative |
recce |
reconnaissance |
ROK |
Republic of Korea |
SAC |
Strategic Air Command |
SAR |
Search and Rescue |
SEAD |
Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses |
SECAF |
Secretary of the Air Force |
SECDEF |
Secretary of Defense |
SECNAV |
Secretary of the Navy |
SIOP |
Single Integrated Operational Plan |
SLAM-ER |
Standoff land-attack missile--expanded response |
SLBM |
Submarine-launched ballistic missile |
|
|
--103--
Glossary (continued) |
CNA |
|
SLEP |
Service Life Extension Program |
SLMM |
Submarine-launched mobile mine |
SPAWAR |
Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command |
SSBN |
Nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine |
SSN |
Nuclear-powered submarine |
SWA |
Southwest Asia |
TAC |
Tactical Air Command |
TACAIR |
Tactical air, tactical aircraft |
T-AGOS |
Ocean surveillance ship |
TLAM |
Tomahawk land attack missile |
TOA |
Total Obligational Authority |
TTP |
Tactics, techniques & procedures |
UAS |
Unmanned aerial system |
UAV |
Unmanned aerial vehicle |
UCAS |
Unmanned combat aircraft system |
UHF |
Ultra high frequency |
UNCLAS |
Unclassified |
USAF |
United States Air Force |
USCENTCOM |
United States°Central Command |
|
|
Glossary (continued) |
CNA |
|
USCINCSPACE |
Commander-in-Chief, United States Space Command |
USCINCSTRAT |
Commander-in-Chief, United States Strategic Command |
USCINCTRANS |
Commander-in-Chief, United States Transportation Command |
USMC |
United States Marine Corps |
USN |
United States Navy |
USNORTHCOM |
United States Northern Command |
USNS |
United States Naval Ship |
USSOCCOM |
United States Special Operations Command |
USSOUTHCOM |
United States Southern Command |
USSPACECOM |
United States Space Command |
USSR |
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics |
USSTRATCOM |
United States Strategic Command |
USTRANSCOM |
United States Transportation Command |
vs. |
versus |
WESTPAC |
Western Pacific |
|
|
--104--
Related CNA studies
Perla, Peter P., et al., The Navy and the JFACC: Making Them Work Together (CNR 202/April 1993)
Perin, David A., Aircraft Carriers: Where Do They Fit in the Nation's Aviation Force Structure? (CNA Occasional Paper, October 1993)
Perin, David A., Angelyn Jewell, Barry F. McCoy and Stephen C. Munchak, Comparing Land-Based and Sea-Based Aircraft: Circumstances Make a Significant Difference (CRM 95-108.10/August 1995)
Perla, Peter P. and Barry P. Messina, The Birth ofAirpower: Analysis of the Devices, Doctrines, and Disciples ofAirpower (CRM 95-136/August 1996)
Cobble, W. Eugene, H. H. Gaffney and Dmitry Gorenburg, For the Record: All U.S. Forces' Responses to Situations, 1970-2000 (with additions covering 2000-2003) (CIM D0008414.A3/lRev, May 2005)
Swartz, Peter M., U.S. Navy Capstone Strategy, Policy, Vision and Concept Documents: What to Consider Before You Write One (CQR D0020071.A1/Final, March 2009)
Swartz, Peter M., with Karin Duggan, U.S. Navy Capstone Strategies & Concepts (1970-2009): With Context & Insights for the U.S. Navy of 2009 & Beyond (MISC D0019819.A1/Final, February 2009)
Swartz, Peter M., with Karin Duggan, U.S. Navy-US. Marine Corps Relationships: 1970-2010 (MISC D00225327.A3/1REV, June 2010)
Related Naval War College studies
Hattendorf, John B. (ed.), U.S. Naval Strategy in the 1970s: Selected Documents, Newport Paper 30 (Newport RI: Naval War College Press, September 2007)
Hattendorf, John B. and Peter M. Swartz (eds.), U.S. Naval Strategy in the 1980s: Selected Documents, Newport Paper 33 (Newport RI: Naval War College Press, December 2008)
Hattendorf, John B. (ed.), U.S. Naval Strategy in the 1990s: Selected Documents, Newport Paper 27 (Newport RI: Naval War College Press, September 2006)
MISCD0024022.A4/1Rev
--105--
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2011
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