HISTORY OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

UNITED KINGDOM MILITARY SERIES

Edited by Sir James Butler

The Mediterranean and Middle East
Volume I
The Early Successes against Italy
(to May 1941)

By
Major-General I.S.O. Playfair
C.B., D.S.O., M.C.

with
Commander G.M.S. Stitt, R.N.
Brigadier C.J.C. Molony
Air Vice-Marshal S.E. Toomer
C.B., C.B.E., D.F.C.

LONDON: 1954
HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE


The authors of the Military Histories have been given full access to official documents.
They and the editor are alone responsible for the statements made and the views expressed.

The three Commanders-in-Chief
The three Commanders-in-Chief:
Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, Air Chief Marshall Sir Arthur Longmore,
General Sir Archibald Wavell.

CONTENTS

  Page
Editor's Preface xv
Introduction xxi
 
CHAPTER I. THE GROWING TENSION IN THE MIDDLE EAST

  Italy's East African Adventure 1
  The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 5
  The Spanish Civil War and the Gentlemen's Agreement 7
  Italy ceases to be a reliable friend 8
  The Fleet Base and the security of Egypt 9
  The Anglo-Italian Agreement of 1938 12
  Palestine and the Arab States 13
  The results of the September 1938 crisis 17
  Chronology: 1933-1938 21
 
CHAPTER II. 1939: PLANS AND PREPARATIONS IN CASE OF WAR

  The Anglo-French Staff Conversations 23
  Reactions to the invasion of Albania 24
  Regional meetings between French and British Commanders 25
  The problem of the air defence of Malta 29
  The creation of a High Command in the Middle East 31
  The situation in Egypt 35
  Italian unreadiness 38
  Chronology: March-August 1939 40
 
CHAPTER III. AT WAR WITH GERMANY: UNEASY CALM IN THE MEDITERRANEAN (September 1939-February 1940)

  Preliminary moves and precautionary measures 41
  Contraband control and Anglo-Italian relations 44
  The threat from the north 48
  The situation in Egypt 53
  The expansion of Dominion forces 57
  Chronology: September 1939-March 1940 58
 
CHAPTER IV. THE LOGISTICS FOUNDATIONS (1939-1940)

  The term 'administration' 59
  The preliminary stage of administrative development for the land and air forces
      (autumn 1939)
59
  The policy decisions of January 1940 61
  The nine-division base in Egypt and Palestine 63
  The position of the Royal Air Force 69
  The development of the Fleet Base 74
 
CHAPTER V. ITALIAN HOSTILITY INCREASES (March-June 1940)

  British reactions to the growing Italian hostility 81
  Allied military policy for war with Italy 85
  A comparison of forces--May 1940 90
  Final preparatoins and moves 97
  Chronology: March-June 1940 100
 
CHAPTER VI. ITALY DECLARES WAR (June 1940)

  The first operations at sea 109
  The beginning of air operations 112
  The Western Desert 115
  The early patrol encounters 117
  Malta under attack 119
  Reactions to Italy's entry, and the French Armistice 121
 
CHAPTER VII. THE FRENCH COLLAPSE

  The immediate consequences 125
  The action at Oran 130
  Admiral Godfroy's squadron at Alexandria 138
  The risk taken at Oran and the reactions 141
 
CHAPTER VIII. ENCOURAGING START OF THE STRUGGLE AT SEA

  British and Italian naval policy 145
  The first encounters at sea 148
  The actions off Calabria and Cape Spada 150
  Measures to strengthen Malta 159
  The naval situation--August 1940 162
 
CHAPTER IX. THE FIRST ENCOUNTERS ON THE BORDERS OF ITALIAN EAST AFRICA

  The situation in Italian East Africa 165
  Operations on the Sudan border 168
  The Italian invasion of British Somaliland 171
  The build-up of forces in Kenya 179
  Preparations to assist the Patriot revolt in Ethiopia 182
 
CHAPTER X. ANXIETY OVER THE POSITION IN THE MIDDLE EAST

  Attention focused on the Middle East in June and July 1940 185
  General Wavell's review in August 187
  The decision to reinforce the Middle East 190
  The plans for rearming the Royal Air Force 192
  The Takoradi air reinforcement route 195
  The Prime Minister's General Directive 197
  The passage of the naval reinforcements in August and September 201
 
CHAPTER XI. THE ITALIANS MAKE A MOVE INTO EGYPT

  The British preparations in Egypt 205
  Marshal Graziani's difficulties 207
  The Italian advance in September 1940 209
  Effect on the general situation 212
  Operations to supply and reinforce Malta 218
 
CHAPTER XII. THE ITALIANS CARRY THE WAR INTO GREECE

  The period of strained relations 223
  The invasion and the question of British help 228
  The Fleet Air Arm's action at Taranto 235
  The possible extension of the war in the Balkans 238
 
CHAPTER XIII. MORE REINFORCEMENTS FOR THE MIDDLE EAST (October-December 1940)
  Further reinforcements for Malta and the Fleet 241
  The cycle of ocean convoys 244
  The serious weakness of the Middle East air forces 250
 
CHAPTER XIV. THE FIRST BRITISH OFFENSIVE IN THE WESTERN DESERT - I
  The beginning of the COMPASS plan 257
  The period of preparation 260
  The battle of Sidi Barrani (December 9th-11th) 265
  Pursuit towards Bardia 270
  The question of surprise 273
 
CHAPTER XV. THE FIRST BRITISH OFFENSIVE IN THE WESTERN DESERT - II
  The preliminary attacks on Bardia 277
  The problem of maintenance 278
  The capture of Bardia 282
  The capture of Tobruk 287
  The Long Range Desert Group 294
 
CHAPTER XVI. SUPREMACY AT SEA

  The action off Cape Spartivento 299
  The question of landing operations 307
  December in the Mediterranean 309
  The situation at the end of 1940 311
 
CHAPTER XVII. THE ARRIVAL OF THE LUFTWAFFE IN JANUARY 1941
  The EXCESS convoy and the first German air attacks 315
  The escape of the Illustrious 321
  The effect upon the strategic situation 323
  The bombardment of Genoa (February 1941) 328
 
CHAPTER XVIII. GERMANY TURNS TO THE BALKANS

  The Albanian front in the winter of 1940/1 333
  The Greeks decline the offer of British troops 338
  Policy in the light of the Greek reply 343
  The appeal to the Turkish President 345
  The German preparations 347
 
CHAPTER XIX. GRAZIANI IS SWEPT OUT OF CYRENAICA (January-February 1941)
  The British advance into northern Cyrenaica 351
  The battle of Beda Fomm 356
  Review of the desert campaign 362
  The German decision to intervene in Africa and the arrival of General Rommel 366
 
CHAPTER XX. THE GREEKS ACCEPT THE BRITISH OFFER

  Middle East policy again reviewed in February 1941 371
  The Eden Mission in the Middle East 374
  The talks with the Greeks 377
  The visit to Ankara 381
  The changed situation 382
  Review of events that led to the British decision 388
 
CHAPTER XXI. THE ITALIANS LOSE THE INITIATIVE IN EAST AFRICA

  Outline of British policy during the campaign 391
  The Sudan front 396
  The Sandford Mission and the Patriot movement 402
 
CHAPTER XXII. THE ADVANCE TO ADDIS ABABA THROUGH SOMALIA AND GOJJAM

  The preliminaries in Kenya 407
  The capture of Kismayu and Mogadishu 412
  The drive to Addis Ababa from the south 416
  Review of the southern campaign 422
  The activities of Gideon Force 424
 
CHAPTER XXIII. VICTORY ON THE NORTHERN FRONT IN EAST AFRICA

  Review of the Italian position in East Africa 429
  The battle of Keren 432
  The advance to Asmara and Massawa 441
  The Duke of Aosta's final stand at Amba Alagi 442
  Review of the whole East African campaign 447
 
CHRONOLOGY OF MAIN EVENTS FROM JUNE 1940 452
 
INDEX 483

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APPENDICES


  Page
APPENDIX 1. Army Council Instructions to the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief in the Middle East; 24th July 1939 457
APPENDIX 2. Directive to the Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Middle East; 11th June 1940 460
APPENDIX 3. Admiral Darlan's signal of 24th June 1940 462
APPENDIX 4. Directive to the Air Officer Commanding British Air Forces in Greece; 5th November 1940 463
APPENDIX 5. Message from the British Prime Minister to the President of the Turkish Republic; 31st January 1941 466
APPENDIX 6. Declaration handed by the Greek President of the Council to the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs at Tatoi; 22nd February 1941 468
APPENDIX 7. Agreement signed at Athens on 4th March 1941 by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff and the Commander-in-Chief of the Greek Army 470
APPENDIX 8. Some particulars of British and enemy aircraft 471
APPENDIX 9. Principal Commanders and Staff Officers in the Mediterranean and Middle East 478
APPENDIX 10. Operational Code Names 481

--x--

MAPS AND DIAGRAMS

    Page
1. The Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of war 1
2. The Mediterranean Sea 9
3. Turkey in Asia 41
4. The Egypt—Palestine base 59
5. The Western Desert of Egypt, 1940 115
6. Oran, 3rd July 1940 133
7. Mers-el-Kebir harbour, 3rd July 1940 134
8. Action off Calabria, 9th July 1940 152
9. Action off Cape Spada, 19th July 1940 157
10. Italian East Africa and surrounding countries 165
11. The Battle of Tug Argan, August 1940 175
12. The West Africa (Takoradi) Air Reinforcement route 195
13. Greece and the Aegean 223
14. Taranto, 11th November 1940 235
15. The Battle of Sidi Barrani, December 1940 257
16. The capture of Bardia, January 1941 285
17. The advance of 13th Corps, December 1940—February 1941 277
18. The capture of Tobruk, January 1941 292
19. The Libyan desert 293
20. Action off Cape Spartivento, 27th November 1940 303
21. The passage of convoy EXCESS through the Sicilian Narrows, 10th January 1941 318
22. The bombardment of Genoa, 9th February 1941 329
23. The Balkans, February 1941 333
24. Interception of the retreating enemy at Beda Fomm, February 1941 359
25. The development of the East African campaign 391
26. Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea 407
27. Southern Ethiopia, January—February 1941 410
28. The crossing of the river Juba, February 1941 414
29. The battlefield of Keren 433
30. The Battle of Amba Alagi 445

--xi--

PHOTOGRAPHS

Most of the photographs are Crown Copyright and are reproduced by courtesy of the Imperial War Museum and the Ministries concerned. Nos. 4 and 7 are from paintings by Rowland Langmaid; Nos. 1, 39, 42 and 43 we taken by Lt.-Col. J.E.B. Barton, and No. 34 by W.P. Thesiger. These are reproduced with their kind permission.


The three Commanders-in-Chief Frontispiece
1. Egypt: entrance to the Tura caves facing page 64
2. British Somaliland: the Tug Argan Gap 64
3. Takoradi: landing a Hurricane fighter facing page 65
4. H.M.S. Illustrious before the attack on Taranto 65
5. Sollum: a British gun in action following page 120
6. A patrol of Gladiators over the desert 120
7. Ships repelling low-level air attack 120
8. An operation in a hospital tent 120
9. A Hurricane over the desert near Matruh 120
10. Dust! 120
11. A desert airfield facing page 121
12. The desert is not always dry 121
13. Buq Buq: a burnt out British tank following page 280
14. Sollum harbour 280
15. Sollum from the Halfaya road 280
16. The river gunboat Aphis 280
17. Bardia harbour 280
18. Bardia 280
19. Tobruk facing page 281
20. The San Giorgio on fire in Tobruk harbour 281
21. Damage to the wharves at Tobruk facing page 304
22. A Patrol of the Long Range Desert Group 304
23. What the air sees in the desert facing page 305
24. The cruisers Berwick, Newcastle and Southampton 305
25. Bombs dropping round the Ark Royal facing page 320
26. A Walrus amphibian 320
27. Bomba seaplane base facing page 321
28. Benghazi harbour 321
29. Yonte: pontoon bridge over the river Juba following page 376
30. Kismayu: unloading stores 376
31. Bridge over the river Awash 376
32. An aircraft dropping a message near Addis Ababa 376
33. The Emperor Haile Selassie returns 376
34. Mount Belaya: the Emperor's first stronghold 376
35. The camel train to Gojjam facing page 377
36. The Ethiopian escarpment 377
37. Ras Hailu's army at Debra Markos following page 424
38. Mai Edega: bombing of the Caproni workshops 424
39. Panorama of the Keren position 424
40. A Wellesley on its way to Keren 424
41. Keren: the road block in the gorge 424
42. Amba Alagi: view from Elephant Hill facing page 425
43. Amba Alagi: view from the south 425

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--xiv--


UK Histories Index * Preface


Transcribed and formatted for HTML by Patrick Clancey and David Shepherd, HyperWar Foundation