OFFICE OF THE CHIEF OF MILITARY HISTORY
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
WASHINGTON, D.C., 1957
University of Missouri
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U.S. Continental Army Command
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Yale University
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Army War College
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Princeton University
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Command and General Staff College
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University of Virginia
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Industrial College of the Armed Forces
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University of Washington
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United States Military Academy
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Louisiana State University
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Chief Historian | Kent Roberts Greenfield |
Deputy Chief of Military History | Col. Ridgway P. Smith, Jr. |
Chief, War Histories Division | Col. Seneca W. Foote |
Chief, Editorial and Publication Division | Lt. Col. E. E. Steck |
Editor in Chief | Joseph R. Friedman |
Chief, Cartographic Branch | Elliot Dunay |
Chief, Photographic Branch | Margaret E. Tackley |
Foreword | vii | ||
The Author | viii | ||
Preface | ix | ||
Chapter | Page | ||
PART ONE Preparations | |||
---|---|---|---|
I. | The Mediterranean Theater of War, 1940-1942 | 3 | |
The Mediterranean as an Axis Theater | 4 | ||
The Allied Decision to Occupy French North Africa | 10 | ||
The President Commits the United States to Operation TORCH | 13 | ||
II. | Strategic Planning | 15 | |
Beginnings of the Allied Force | 15 | ||
General Eisenhower's Directive | 16 | ||
The Objective | 16 | ||
Political Considerations | 22 | ||
Strategic Decisions | 25 | ||
III. | Tactical Plans and Political Preparations | 32 | |
Organizing the Chain of Command of the Allied Force | 32 | ||
Directives for Joint Action by the U.S. Army and Navy | 37 | ||
Western Task Force Planning | 39 | ||
Center Task Force Planning | 46 | ||
Planning for Operations at Algiers | 50 | ||
Political Preparations | 54 | ||
Civil Affairs Planning | 57 | ||
IV. | Completing the Preparations | 60 | |
Training for the Assault | 60 | ||
Plans for Logistical Support | 63 | ||
Departure of the Western Task Force | 67 | ||
Departure of the Center and Eastern Task Forces | 70 | ||
Axis Situation in the Mediterranean on the Eve of the Attack | 72 | ||
Finding a French Leader | 77 | ||
The Climax of the Preparations | 84 | ||
PART TWO The Amphibious Phase on the Atlantic Coast | |||
V. | The French Decide to Fight | 89 | |
VI. | Taking Safi | 97 | |
The Objective and Its Defenses | 97 | ||
The Plan of Attack | 102 | ||
Debarkation Begins | 102 | ||
The Battle Opens | 104 | ||
Completing the Seizure of Safi | 107 | ||
Air Action at Safi | 109 | ||
Stopping French Reinforcement From Marrakech | 111 | ||
The Armored Force Starts Toward Casablanca | 114 | ||
VII. | Fedala to Casablanca | 116 | |
The Landings Begin | 123 | ||
Clearing Cap de Fedala | 127 | ||
The Capture of the Batterie du Pont Blondin | 129 | ||
Other D-Day Landings at Fedala | 130 | ||
The French Reaction Ashore | 131 | ||
Naval Action on D-Day | 133 | ||
Unloading at Fedala on D-Day | 134 | ||
The Advance on 9 November | 137 | ||
French Countermeasures in Morocco, 9-10 November | 141 | ||
The Attack Near the Coast on 10 November | 142 | ||
Pushing to the Southeastern Edge of Casablanca, 10 November | 144 | ||
VIII. | Mehdia to Port-Lyautey | 147 | |
The Plan of Attack | 150 | ||
The Enemy is Alerted | 153 | ||
The 2d BLT Attacks in the Center | 155 | ||
The 1st BLT Attacks on the South Wing | 157 | ||
The 3d BLT's Attack on the North Wing | 158 | ||
Summary of D-Day | 159 | ||
The Second Day's Operations | 161 | ||
The Night Attacks, 9-10 November | 163 | ||
Closing on the Airdrome, 10 November | 165 | ||
Taking the Kasba | 167 | ||
The Final Phase | 168 | ||
IX. | The End of Hostilities in Morocco | 171 | |
Armistice | 171 | ||
Enemy Submarines Attack | 174 | ||
Political Conditions | 176 | ||
The Western Task Force After the Surrender | 179 | ||
PART THREE The Amphibious Operations in the Mediterranean | |||
X. | The Last Preliminaries | 185 | |
The Convoys Elude the Enemy | 185 | ||
Giraud's Associates in Oran and Algiers | 188 | ||
Giraud at Gibraltar | 190 | ||
XI. | The First Day's Operations Against Oran | 192 | |
The Arrival of the Center Task Force Off Oran | 192 | ||
The Landings at Mersa bou Zedjar | 195 | ||
The Landings at Les Andalouses (Y Beach) | 199 | ||
The Direct Assault on Oran Harbor (Operation RESERVIST) | 202 | ||
Naval Air Support for the Landings | 204 | ||
The Landings Along the Golfe d'Arzew | 205 | ||
Combat Team 18 on D-Day | 207 | ||
Combat Team 16 on D-Day | 208 | ||
Task Force RED Takes Tafaraoui Airfield | 209 | ||
The Airborne Troops of the Center Task Force | 212 | ||
The Situation as D-Day Ends | 213 | ||
XII. | The Seizure of Oran | 215 | |
The French Counterattack on the Eastern Flank | 215 | ||
French Armored Counterattack Near Tafaraoui | 217 | ||
Misserrhin is Bypassed by the GREEN Flying Column, 9-10 November | 219 | ||
St. Cloud is Finally Bypassed | 220 | ||
The Approach to Oran From the East and South | 220 | ||
The Final Attack on Oran, 10 November | 223 | ||
Aftermath of Victory | 225 | ||
XIII. | The Occupation of Algiers | 229 | |
The Plan of Attack | 229 | ||
Arrival at the Beaches | 234 | ||
The Western Landings | 235 | ||
The Capture of Lambiridi and of Blida Airdrome | 238 | ||
Operation TERMINAL | 241 | ||
The Eastern Landings | 244 | ||
Negotiations in Algiers | 249 | ||
Hostilities Cease in Algiers | 250 | ||
XIV. | The Axis Reaction and the French Decision | 253 | |
Axis Efforts to Gain French Cooperation | 254 | ||
Axis Military Planning | 260 | ||
Clark-Darlan Negotiations | 262 | ||
The North African Agreement | 269 | ||
French West Africa Cooperates | 271 | ||
French Organization for Military Cooperation | 272 | ||
PART FOUR The End of Operation TORCH | |||
XV. | Taking Positions for the Drive on Tunis | 277 | |
Advance Into Tunisia | 277 | ||
The Terrain of Tunisia | 280 | ||
Allied Spearheads Engage the Enemy | 283 | ||
Nehring Takes Command in Tunis | 286 | ||
The First Battle at Medjez el Bab, 19-20 November | 287 | ||
The Enemy Attempts to Extend the Bridgehead | 288 | ||
Preparations for the First Allied Attack | 291 | ||
Enemy Strength | 294 | ||
Allied Plan of Attack | 295 | ||
XVI. | The Attack Toward Tunis | 299 | |
The Two Northern Columns Attack, 25 November | 299 | ||
The Southern Attack Begins | 302 | ||
The Battle for Djedeïda | 305 | ||
XVII. | Stalemate Before Tunis | 311 | |
The Axis Counterattack Begins | 312 | ||
The Second Day | 315 | ||
The Climax of the Counterattack, 3 December | 318 | ||
December Decisions on Axis Strategy | 321 | ||
The Action at Djebel el Guessa, 6 December | 326 | ||
The Allies Fall Back to a New Line | 329 | ||
The Plans for the Final Attack | 335 | ||
The Engagement at Longstop Hill | 338 | ||
PART FIVE Concentration of Forces in Tunisia | |||
XVIII. | The New Situation: Allied Reaction | 347 | |
Central Tunisia: The Terrain | 347 | ||
Operation SATIN and Related Problems | 349 | ||
The New Chain of Allied Command | 354 | ||
Giraud Replaces Darlan | 355 | ||
French Factionalism Persists | 359 | ||
Rearming the French | 361 | ||
XIX. | The New Situation: Axis Reaction | 363 | |
Revision of Axis Plans | 363 | ||
The Axis Logistical Problem | 365 | ||
Axis Reorganization in January | 368 | ||
The Axis Forces--Strength and Disposition | 370 | ||
XX. | Sparring Along the Eastern Dorsal | 373 | |
Fighting to Keep the Initiative | 373 | ||
The Enemy's Attack, 18-28 January | 376 | ||
Changes in Allied Field Command | 383 | ||
The Enemy's Next Moves | 386 | ||
II Corps Plans | 386 | ||
The Enemy Attacks Faïd Pass | 388 | ||
The Allied Attack on Maknassy Begins | 392 | ||
The Enemy Retains Faïd Pass | 393 | ||
Operations Southwest of Pont-du-Fahs | 394 | ||
II Corps Attack on Maknassy Ends | 395 | ||
II Corps Goes on the Defensive | 398 | ||
XXI. | The Enemy Strikes at U.S. II Corps | 401 | |
Allied Expectations | 401 | ||
Allied Dispositions, 13 February | 402 | ||
The Enemy's Intentions | 405 | ||
Axis Plans for Taking Sidi Bou Zid and Gafsa | 407 | ||
The Battle of Sidi Bou Zid, 14 February | 410 | ||
Allied Preparations for Counterattack | 416 | ||
The Counterattack at Sidi Bou Zid, 15 February | 419 | ||
XXII. | The Enemy Drives Back the Allied Southern Flank | 423 | |
The Decision to Fall Back to the West | 423 | ||
The Axis Attack Pauses | 424 | ||
The Axis Forces Squander a Day | 426 | ||
The Allied Line Swings Back | 427 | ||
The Attack on Sbeïtla Begins, 16 February | 430 | ||
Withdrawal to Sbiba--Loss of Fériana and Thélepte | 436 | ||
XXIII. | Rommel's Thrust Through Kasserine Pass | 438 | |
The Axis Decision of 18 February | 438 | ||
The Allied Line in the South | 442 | ||
The Terrain at Kasserine Pass | 444 | ||
The Defense of Kasserine Pass, 19 February | 447 | ||
The 21st Panzer Division Is Stopped at Sbiba, 19 February | 452 | ||
The Loss of Kasserine Pass, 20 February | 453 | ||
Allied Defenses in the Rear of Kasserine Pass | 457 | ||
XXIV. | The Enemy is Turned Back | 459 | |
The Enemy is Held on the Tébessa Road | 460 | ||
Thala Narrowly Escapes Capture | 464 | ||
The Enemy Retires Through Kasserine Pass | 469 | ||
The New Army Groups | 475 | ||
Balance Sheet of the February Battles | 477 | ||
PART SIX Shift to Northern Tunisia | |||
XXV. | The Allies Prepare for Decisive Action | 485 | |
Reorganizing the Allied Command | 485 | ||
Ground Forces Reorganize | 489 | ||
The New Allied Air Command | 492 | ||
Allied Preparations in the Communications Zone | 495 | ||
Preparations by the French | 499 | ||
XXVI. | The Enemy Strives to Retain the Initiative | 501 | |
A Major Effort in the North is Planned | 501 | ||
The Attack on the Northern Flank | 504 | ||
The Attack via Sidi Nsir | 505 | ||
The Enemy Fails, South of the Medjerda | 507 | ||
The Outcome of the 26 February Offensive | 508 | ||
New Instructions for Army Group Africa | 509 | ||
Axis Logistical Preparations | 512 | ||
The Battle of Médenine | 514 | ||
Rommel Leaves Tunisia | 519 | ||
XXVII. | From Mareth to Enfidaville | 521 | |
The Approach of the British Eighth Army | 521 | ||
The Mareth Position | 522 | ||
Rommel's Analysis of the Mareth Position | 524 | ||
The Gap Leading to El Hamma | 525 | ||
Plans for Operation PUGILIST GALLOP | 526 | ||
Defense Plans | 527 | ||
The Battle on the Coastal Plain | 530 | ||
The Shift to Operation SUPERCHARGE II | 533 | ||
The Enemy Falls Back to the Chott Position | 537 | ||
The Enemy is Driven to Northeastern Tunisia | 539 | ||
XXVIII. | Gafsa, Maknassy, and El Guettar (17-25 March) | 543 | |
Army Group's Plan for II Corps | 543 | ||
The Corps Plan: Operation WOP | 545 | ||
The Occupation of Gafsa | 547 | ||
The Seizure of Station de Sened | 548 | ||
The Advance Beyond Maknassy | 550 | ||
18 Army Group Revises II Corps Mission, 22 March | 553 | ||
Enemy Defense of Maknassy Pass, 23-25 March | 554 | ||
The 1st Infantry Division Holds the Enemy Near El Guettar | 557 | ||
Reinforced American Infantry Versus German Armor, 23 March | 560 | ||
XXIX. | II Corps Operations Beyond El Guettar | 564 | |
18 Army Group Again Revises the Plan for II Corps | 564 | ||
Two Divisions East of El Guettar, 28-29 March | 565 | ||
The Armored Attack Toward Gabés, 30 March-1 April | 569 | ||
Tactical Air Support of II Corps | 573 | ||
II Corps is Held, 2-6 April | 574 | ||
The Enemy Pulls Out, 6-8 April | 576 | ||
XXX. | Attacks at Fondouk El Aouareb and Pursuit Onto the Plain | 578 | |
The Second Attack at Fondouk el Aouareb Falters | 582 | ||
British 6th Armoured Division Breaks Out at Fondouk el Aouareb | 589 | ||
The Enemy Slips Past Kairouan | 590 | ||
PART SEVEN Allied Drive to Victory | |||
XXXI. | Preparations | 595 | |
The Terrain of the Enemy's Bridgehead | 595 | ||
The Allied Plan of Attack | 598 | ||
The Enemy's Plans and Regrouping | 601 | ||
Allied Regrouping | 604 | ||
XXXII. | The Attack Begins | 609 | |
II Corps Plans | 613 | ||
Preparations for the Attack in the North | 614 | ||
Attack in the North Begins | 618 | ||
II Corps Southern Attack Begins | 620 | ||
XXXIII. | The Advance to Mateur | 628 | |
Hill 609 | 628 | ||
The Attack Opens | 631 | ||
First Failure and Broadened Plans | 632 | ||
Successful General Attack, 30 April-1 May | 635 | ||
Approaching "The Mousetrap" | 638 | ||
The Enemy is Forced to Withdraw, 1-3 May | 639 | ||
The Fall of Mateur, 3 May | 641 | ||
XXXIV. | The End in Tunisia | 644 | |
Plans to Take Tunis | 644 | ||
The Liberation of Tunis | 649 | ||
Bizerte Falls to the U.S. II Corps | 651 | ||
U.S. II Corps Pushes Beyond Mateur | 654 | ||
Total Surrender in the North | 659 | ||
The Fighting Ends in the South | 662 | ||
Allied Reorganization | 665 | ||
XXXV. | Fruits of Victory | 669 | |
French Unification | 669 | ||
Some "Lessons Learned" by the Army | 671 | ||
Some "Lessons Learned" by the Enemy | 673 | ||
Allied Leadership | 674 | ||
Strategic Consequences | 675 | ||
Appendix | Page | ||
A. | Allied Troop and Supply Shipments | 679 | |
B. | Axis Troop and Supply Shipments | 682 | |
Note on Sources | 684 | ||
Glossary | 688 | ||
Code Names | 693 | ||
Basic Military Map Symbols | 695 | ||
Index | 699 |
Tables | ||
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No. | Page | |
1. | Personnel and Vehicles Assigned to Force "X" (BLACKSTONE), as of 22 October 1942 | 101 |
2. | Personnel and Vehicles Assigned to Force "Y" (BRUSHWOOD), as of 22 October 1942 | 122 |
3. | Personnel and Vehicles Assigned to Force "Z" (GOALPOST), as of 22 October 1942 | 151 |
4. | Battle Casualties Sustained by the Allied Forces in the Algerian-French Moroccan Campaign, 8–11 November 1942 | 173 |
5. | Battle Casualties Sustained by the Allied Forces in the Tunisian Campaign, 12 November 1942–13 May 1943 | 675 |
6. | Strength and Supplies of Allied Assault Forces in the Invasion of North Africa, 8 November 1942 | 679 |
7. | Strength of Allied Forces Landed in North Africa as of 1 December 1942 | 679 |
8. | Strength of U.S. Army in North Africa, November 1942-April 1943 | 680 |
9. | German Supply Shipments Received in North Africa, November 1942–May 1943 | 682 |
10. | German Losses in Sea Transport to North Africa, November 1942-May 1943 | 683 |
11. | Axis Troops Transported to North Africa, November 1942–May 1943 | 683 |
CHARTS | ||
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No. | Page | |
1. | AFHQ Organization, 1 November 1942 | 34 |
2. | Allied Command Relationships in the Mediterranean, March 1943 | 486 |
The illustrations on pages 197 and 245 are from the Imperial War Museum, London; the illustration on page 383 is from Service Cinèma des Armées; the one on page 502 is a captured German photograph. All other illustrations are from the files of the Department of Defense.