United States Army in World War II
The War in the Pacific

Strategy and Command: The First Two Years

Louis Morton


. . . to Those Who Served


CONTENTS

Foreword vii
The Author viii
Preface ix
  Introduction  
      Page
THE PACIFIC WORLD 3-20
The Ocean and Its Islands 5
The Great Powers in the Pacific
  PART ONE
The Road to War
 
Chapter
I. THE BEGINNINGS OF PACIFIC STRATEGY 21-44
Early Plans for Defense 21
The ORANGE Plan 24
RED and RED-ORANGE 31
Strategic Dilemma
II. JAPANESE POLICY AND STRATEGY, 1931-JULY 1941 45-66
Japanese Expansion 46
Economic and Military Preparations 54
Japan Moves South
III. EUROPE VERSUS THE PACIFIC 67-91
Strategic Adjustment, 1938-1940 68
The Critical Summer of 1940 74
Shift to the Atlantic, September 1940-January 1941 79
RAINBOW 5 86
IV. THE FATAL TURN 92-112
The July Crisis 92
America Faces the Far East 96
The Plan for War 103
V. THE DECISION FOR WAR 113-130
Tojo Takes Over 113
The Progress of Negotiations 117
The Die Is Cast 121
Conclusion 124
  PART TWO
The Defensive: Pearl Harbor to Midway
 
VI. THE FIRST WEEKS OF WAR, 7-26 DECEMBER 131-153
The Japanese Offensive: First Phase 131
Meeting the Emergency 139
VII. THE MALAY BARRIER 154-180
Allied Strategy 154-165
The ABDACOM Interlude 166-180
VIII. THE PHILIPPINES 181-197
The Siege of Bataan 181-185
Strategy and Logistics 186-192
Command 193-197
IX. AUSTRALIA AND THE LINE OF COMMUNICATION 198-224
The Northeast Area 198-203
The Line of Communications 204-211
The Japanese Threat 212-216
Pacific Build-Up 217-224
X. THE U.S. AND JAPANESE HIGH COMMANDS 225-239
The Washington Command Post 225-233
The Japanese High Command 234-239
XI. ORGANIZATION AND COMMAND OF THE PACIFIC 240-263
The Problem of Responsibility 240-243
The Southwest Pacific and Pacific Ocean Areas 244-255
The South Pacific Area 256-263
XII. TRANSITION 264-288
The Fall of the Philippines 264-268
The Tokyo Raid 269-273
Coral Sea and Midway 274-288
  PART THREE
Seizing the Initiative
 
XIII. PLANNING THE OFFENSIVE 289-204
Early Plans 289-293
Strategy and Command 294-300
Compromise: The 2 July Directive 301-304
XIV. PREPARATIONS AND PROBLEMS
Logistics and Strategy 305-307
The Pacific Versus Europe 308-310
MacArthur Prepares 311-317
Final Preparations 318-323
XV. CRISIS IN THE PACIFIC, AUGUST-NOVEMBER 1942 324-351
Emergency Measures 325-332
The Debate Over Priorities 333-339
The October Crisis 340-344
The Shipping Crisis 345-348
The Crisis Ends 349-351
XVI. COMMAND AND COOPERATION 352-363
Army-Navy Relations in the South Pacific
The Southwest and Central Pacific 357-358
Joint Staffs 359-360
A Unified Command for the Pacific 361-363
XVII. JAPANESE AND AMERICAN PLANS 364-375
The Japanese Regroup 364-369
Task Two and Three: The Indivisibility of Strategy and Command 370-375
XVIII. THE PACIFIC IN GRAND STRATEGY 376-386
Strategic Concepts 376-379
The Casablanca Conference 380-384
Strategy for 1943 385-386
XIX. MEANS AND ENDS: THE MARCH 1943 DIRECTIVE 387-399
Theater Plans 387-389
The Pacific Military Conference 390-399
XX. CARTWHEEL AND THE I-GO OPERATION 400-418
CARTWHEEL 400-410
The I-GO Operation 411-418
  PART FOUR
Emerging Patterns
 
XXI. THE NORTH PACIFIC AND THE SOVIET UNION 419-433
Strategic Background 419-420
The Aleutians 421-432
XXII. THE REVIVAL OF ORANGE 434-453
The Central Pacific War 434-436
The Philippines in Central Pacific Strategy 437-443
The Japanese 444-446
The Central Pacific in Long-Range Strategy 447-453
XXIII. CENTRAL PACIFIC TIMETABLE 454-472
The TRIDENT Conference 454-459
The Marshalls Plan 460-462
Alternate Proposals 463-467
Gilberts-Nauru Plan 468-472
XXIV. ORGANIZING FOR THE OFFENSIVE 473-501
The Problem 473-480
Theater Organization 481-489
The Joint Staff 490-501
XXV. OPERATIONS AND PLANS, SUMMER 1943 502-520
CARTWHEEL Begins 502-511
Strategic Forecast, August 1943 512-520
XXVI. REVIEW AND ADJUSTMENT 521-542
Ships and Plans 521-526
Strategic Role of the North Pacific 527-532
CARTWHEEL and RENO 533-542
XXVII. THE JAPANESE REVISE THEIR STRATEGY 543-558
The New Operational Policy 543-546
The Decision Is Made 547-549
The New Strategy in Action 550-558
XXVIII. THE EXECUTION OF STRATEGY: PACIFIC OPERATIONS, AUGUST-DECEMBER 1943 559-583
New Georgia 559-562
Salamaua to Sio 563-566
The Gilbert Islands 567-574
CARTWHEEL Completed
XXIX. PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE 584-606
The Pattern of Pacific Warfare 585-589
The Prospects for Japan 590-591
Long-Range Plans for the Defeat of Japan 592-600
Operations for 1944 601-606
Appendix
A. DIRECTIVE TO THE SUPREME COMMANDER, ABDA AREA, 3 JANUARY 1942 (ABC-4/5) 607-610
B. GENERAL OUTLINE OF POLICY OF FUTURE WAR GUIDANCE, ADOPTED BY LIAISON CONFERENCE, 7 MARCH 1942, AND REPORT OF PRIME MINISTER AND CHIEFS OF STAFF TO EMPEROR, 13 MARCH 1942 611-613
C. DIRECTIVE TO THE SUPREME COMMANDER IN THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA, 30 MARCH 1942 (CCS 57/1) 614-616
D. DIRECTIVE TO THE COMMANDER IN CHIEF PACIFIC OCEAN AREA, 30 MARCH 1942 (CCS 57/1) 617-618
E. JOINT DIRECTIVE FOR OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS IN THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA AGREED UPON BY THE UNITED STATES CHIEFS OF STAFF, 2 JULY 1942 619-620
F. LETTER OF INSTRUCTIONS TO MAJ. GEN. MILLARD F. HARMON, COMMANDING GENERAL, U.S. ARMY FORCES IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC, 7 JULY 1942 621-623
G. JAPANESE ARMY-NAVY CENTRAL AGREEMENT CONCERNING SOUTH PACIFIC AREA OPERATIONS, WITH SUPPLEMENT, 4 JANUARY 1943 624-626
H. CONDUCT OF THE WAR IN THE PACIFIC THEATER IN 1943, MEMORANDUM BY . JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF, 22 JANUARY 1943 (CCS 168) 627-629
I. THE ELKTON PLAN FOR THE SEIZURE AND OCCUPATION OF THE NEW BRITAIN-NEW IRELAND-NEW GUINEA AREA, PREPARED BY GHQ, SWPA, 28 FEBRUARY 1943 630-635
J. JAPANESE ARMY-NAVY CENTRAL AGREEMENT ON SOUTHEAST AREA OPERATIONS, WITH SUPPLEMENT, 15 MARCH 1943 636-640
K. JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF DIRECTIVE: OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS IN THE SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREAS DURING 1943, 28 MARCH 1943 (JCS 238/5/D) 641
L. JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF DIRECTIVE: UNIFIED COMMAND FOR U.S. JOINT OPERATIONS, 20 APRIL 1943 (JCS 263/2/D) 642-643
M. JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF MEMORANDUM: STRATEGIC PLAN FOR THE DEFEAT OF JAPAN, APPROVED BY THE COMBINED CHIEFS OF STAFF, 19 MAY 1943 (JCS 287/1 AND CCS 220) 644-647
N. EXTRACT FROM THE FINAL REPORT OF THE COMBINED CHIEFS OF STAFF TO THE PRESIDENT AND PRIME MINISTER AT THE TRIDENT CONFERENCE, APPROVED 25 MAY 1943 (CCS 242/6) 648-649
O. EXTRACT FROM THE FINAL REPORT OF THE COMBINED CHIEFS OF STAFF TO THE PRESIDENT AND PRIME MINISTER AT THE QUADRANT CONFERENCE, 24 AUGUST 1943 (CCS 319/5) 650-653
P. APPOINTMENT OF LT. GEN. ROBERT C. RICHARDSON, JR., AS COMMANDING GENERAL, U.S. ARMY FORCES, CENTRAL PACIFIC AREA, 16 AUGUST 1943 654
Q. JAPANESE GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE FUTURE WAR DIRECTION POLICY, ADOPTED AT THE IMPERIAL CONFERENCE, 30 SEPTEMBER 1943 655-656
R. JAPANESE ARMY-NAVY CENTRAL AGREEMENT CONCERNING THE CENTRAL AND SOUTH PACIFIC OPERATIONS, WITH SUPPLEMENT, 30 SEPTEMBER 1943 657-660
S. SUMMARY OF RENO III, OUTLINE PLAN FOR OPERATIONS OF THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA TO REOCCUPY THE SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES, PREPARED BY GHQ, SWPA, 20 OCTOBER 1943 661-667
T. OVERALL PLAN FOR THE DEFEAT OF JAPAN: REPORT BY THE COMBINED STAFF PLANNERS, APPROVED IN PRINCIPLE, 2 DECEMBER 1943 (CCS 417) 668-672
U. SPECIFIC OPERATIONS FOR THE DEFEAT OF JAPAN, 1944, 3 DECEMBER 1943 (CCS 397 REV), MEMORANDUM BY THE U.S. CHIEFS OF STAFF 673-674
V. ELKTON III, GENERAL HEADQUARTERS, SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA, 26 APRIL 1943 675-685
W. RENO III, HISTORICAL RECORD INDEX CARD, GHQ SWPA, 20 OCTOBER 1943 686-692
GUIDE TO FOOTNOTES
(Footnotes are hyper-linked and included with each chapter)
[This section describes the conventions used in citing documents in the footnotes]
693-696
THE SOURCES 697-715
BASIC MILITARY MAP SYMBOLS 716-720
INDEX 721
  TABLES  
No.   Page
1. Japanese Military Budget, 1931-1940 55
2. Japanese Army Ground and Air Forces and Navy Air Forces, 1937-1941 57
3. Major Army Combat Forces for the Pacific, Present and Projected, April-May 1942 213
4. Army Strength in the Pacific, April 1942 224
5. Timetable of Pacific Operations, August 1943 516
6. Strength, U.S. Forces in the Pacific, 31 December 1943 538
7. Major U.S. Combat Forces in the Pacific, 31 December 1943 539
8. Major U.S. Combat and Air Forces in Pacific and European Areas, 31 December 1943 540
9. Japanese Shipping Losses, 7 December 1941-20 September 1943 546
10. Japanese Army Reinforcements, Central Pacific, September 1943-January 1944 554
11. Army (and AAF) Battle Casualties, Pacific Areas, December 1941-December 1943 585
12. Battle Casualties, Navy and Marine Corps, December 1941-December 1943 586
13. Specific Operations for the Defeat of Japan, 1944 604
  CHARTS  
1. Disposition of Major Japanese Forces for War, December 1941 110
2. Organization of ABDACOM, January-February 1942 169
3. The Washington High Command and the Pacific Theaters, December 1942 232
4. The Japanese High Command 238
5. Command Organization in the Pacific, July 1942 254
6. Organization of Japanese Forces, Solomons-New Guinea Area, January 1943 366
7. Command Organization, South Pacific Forces, August 1943 404
8. Organization for Administration and Supply, U.S. Army Forces, South Pacific Area, July 1943 405
9. Organization of South Pacific Air Forces, Solomon Is, July 1943 406
10. Command Organization, Southwest Pacific Area, July 1943 409
11. Organization for Administration and Supply, U.S. Army Forces, Southwest Pacific Area, July 1943 410
12. Organization of Japanese Forces, Southeast Area, July 1943 414
13. Command Organization, Pacific Ocean Areas, October 1943 483
14. Organization for Administration and Supply, U.S. Army Forces, Central Pacific Area, December 1943 488
15. Headquarters Organization, CINCPOA-CINCPAC FLEET, October 1943 497
16. Organization of Japanese Forces in Pacific and Southeast Asia, November 1943 556
  MAPS  
1. The Japanese Plan for War, December 1941 106
2. The ABDACOM Area, January-February 1942 162
3. The South Pacific Line of Communications to Australia, 1942 206
4. The Japanese Advance Into the Solomons-New Guinea Area, January-July 1942 291
5. The Battle Area, August 1942 314
6. The North Pacific 422
7. The Central Pacific 435
8. New Georgia Operations, 21 June-5 July 1943 506
9. Japan's National Defense Zone, Southeast Area 548
10. South Pacific Operations, June-November 1943 561
11. Southwest Pacific Operations, September 1943-February 1944 567
12. Makin Atoll 568
13. Tarawa Atoll 570
14. Progress and Prospects, 31 December 1943 588
  Maps I-III are in inverse order inside back cover  
I. The Japanese Offensive, December 1941-May 1942  
II. The Pacific and Adjacent Theaters, April 1942  
III. The CARTWHEEL Operations  
  ILLUSTRATIONS  
1. Fujiyama 8
2. On Board the Powhatan 9
3. View from Manila Bay 23
4. Washington Conference, 1921-22 26
5. General Douglas MacArthur 38
6. Brig. Gen. Stanley D. Embick 40
7. Japanese Cabinet, March 1936 49
8. Japanese Troops Marching Through the Peiping Gate 52
9. Konoye Cabinet of June 1937 53
10. General George C. Marshall 73
11. Admiral Harold R. Stark 73
12. Brig. Gen. George V. Strong 76
13. General Teiichi Suzuki 95
14. Admiral Osami Nagano 96
15. Lt. Gen. Walter C. Short 102
16. Admiral Husband E. Kimmel 103
17. Japanese Mock-up of Ford Island and Battleship Row 104
18. General Hideki Tojo 116
19. Japanese Signs Proclaiming Economy Drive 117
20. Joint Board Meeting 120
21. Kurusu and Nomura 125
22. "Banzai!" 134
23. Pearl Harbor, 7 December 1941 135
24. President Franklin D. Roosevelt 142
25. Admiral Ernest J. King 145
26. Lt. Gen. Delos C. Emmons 145
27. Admiral Chester W. Nimitz 145
28. Secretary of War Henry l. Stimson 149
29. Lt. Gen. H. ter Poorten 167
30. ABDA Command 170
31. Vice Adm. Conrad E.L. Helfrich and Admiral Thomas C. Hart 173
32. Lt. Gen. Masaharu Homma 183
33. General MacArthur With Brig. Gen. Patrick J. Hurley 196
34. Brig Gen. Alexander M. Patch, Jr. 210
35. Forward Echelon of the 41st Division 211
36. Joint Chiefs of Staff 228
37. General MacArthur and Admiral Nimitz 249
38. Vice Adm. Herbert F. Leary 253
39. Rear Adm. Robert L. Ghormley 258
40. Rear Adm. John R. McCain 258
41. Rear Adm. Aubrey W. Fitch 259
42. Rear Adm. Richmond K. Turner 259
43. Lt. Gen. Jonathan M. Wainwright 268
44. Lt. Col. James H. Doolittle and Capt. Marc A. Mitscher 271
45. Explosion on the Lexington 277
46. Battle of Midway 285
47. Training on Australian Beaches 293
48. Brig. Gen. Thomas T. Handy 298
49. Rear Adm. Charles M. Cooke, Jr. 299
50. General MacArthur and Maj. Gen. George C. Kenney 312
51. Maj. Gen. Robert L. Eichelberger and General Sir Thomas Blamey 312
52. A-20 Skip-Bombing an Enemy Freighter 320
53. B-17 Over the Solomons 321
54. New P-38's at Noumea 332
55. Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold 338
56. Admiral Nimitz at Noumea 339
57. Ships at Noumea 346
58. Damaged Supplies 355
59. Henderson Field 356
60. Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr., and Maj. Gen. Millard F. Harmon 357
61. Lt. Gen. Hatazo Adachi 368
62. Lt. Gen. Haruhoshi Hyakutake 368
63. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto 369
64. Lt. Gen. Hitoshi Imamura 369
65. Plenary Session at Casablanca 384
66. Conference at ALAMO Headquarters 407
67. Lt. Gen. John L. DeWitt 428
68. Rear Adm. Thomas C. Kinkaid 429
69. Planning the Kiska Operation 432
70. Vice Adm. Raymond A. Spruance 484
71. Lt. Gen. Robert C. Richardson, Jr. 484
72. Maj. Gen. Holland M. Smith 485
73. Rear Adm. John H. Hoover >485
74. Maj. Gen. Willis H. Hale 489
75. Fijian Commandos 504
76. Rendova Commanders 508
77. Rendova Landing Forces 508
78. Munda Airfield 512
79. On New Georgia 513
80. American Strategic Planners at QADRANT 518
81. The Combined Chiefs of Staff at Quebec 519
82. Vice Adm. Jinichi Kusaka 551
83. Australian Troops Go Ashore Near Lae 564
84. Airborne Operations at Nadzab 565
85. LVT's at Tarawa 572
86. Landing Craft Moving in on Butaritari Island 574
87. Admiral Halsey with Maj. Gen. Robert S. Beightler and Maj. Gen. Roy S. Geiger 578
88. Maj. Gen. Oscar W. Griswold and General Harmon 579
89. Supply Road on Bougainville 580
90. Cairo Conference 594
91. Tehran Conference 595
92. General Marshall at Southwest Pacific Headquarters 603
Illustrations are from the following sources
National Archives; pages 49, 52, 53, 117, 196, 428.
Captured Japanese films: pages 95, 96, 116, 183, 268, 369, 551.
Life photograph taken by McAvoy: page 125.
The Netherlands Department of Defense: pages, 167, 170, 173.
Australian War Memorial: page 368.
All other photographs are from Department of Defense files.

Abbreviations * Military Map Symbols


Transcribed and formatted for HTML by Patrick Clancey, HyperWar Foundation