Here is an updated summary of
Creation beliefs found in South Africa and alternative methods of Remembering
and Knowing
Annalize Rheeder.
OTHER WAYS OF REMEMBERING AND
KNOWING
This
is a very brief and incomplete summary of ways in which history and knowledge
is transmitted in ways other than textbooks and the media. Particular emphasis
is placed on African traditions.
African Dance
Dance
in Africa is as different and varied as the people living on the continent. But
its primary function is a cultural and artistic expression of the community
(Asante p63). Dance can be seen as a mirror for the culture of a community
since the community's beliefs, values, attitudes and history determine the
dance (Asante p64). Dance is seen as a medium through which belief, emotion,
values and other knowledge can be communicated (Asante p13). Legends and
history are often told with dance (Asante p6). Thus dance can also be seen as a
form of education (Asante p5).
Oral literature
Poetry
Poetry
in Africa is a highly developed form of oral literature, with a wide range of
different forms. The first form is panegyric poetry, which is a type of court
poetry, which stress military power and royalty, and is also call praise poetry
(Finnigan p111). Mostly this forms is used for praising kings, living and dead,
by praising their rule and deeds (Finnigan p115). Some however do give advise
"Look not with too friendly eyes on the world, pass your hand over your
face in meditation." (Finnigan p115). Most of these poems are obscure and
use archaic and lofty language. They often refer to historical events and use
lots of figurative forms of expression (Finnigan p117). These Praises have many
different social roles, such as affirming status, voicing public opinion and
preserving history (Finnigan p121).
Elegiac
poetry is a stylized and literary form of lamentation and thus more private.
Some are pure expressions of the feelings of the mourner, such as "the
Broken String" while others also include knowledge about ancestors and
heritage (Finnigan p153)
Religious
Poetry is difficult to pinpoint, as it may only be loosely associated with
religion. Some may have religious contents or carry religious instructions
while others may be didactic with narrative elements. Some carry instruction on
conduct, like the "Utendi wa Mwan Kapona", which are the instructions
of a mother to her daughter (Finnigan p167-174). Some divination rituals
include poetry in order to instruct the person on the importance of obedience
or other moral values (Finnigan p196).
In
addition to these forms there are special purpose poetry which is connected to
special occasions or actions like hunting or war, as well as common activities
like begging or cattle herding (Finnigan p206).
The
lyric is the most common form of poetry in Africa. The verbal content of these
songs tends to be short and less informal than the forms of poetry described
above. Improvisation is very common and the individual singer does not stand
alone but interacts with a chorus. There are occasions for song in almost all
activities, from war and death to birth, work and rites of passage
(Finnigan241-242). The content of the songs may also vary from gossip to the
relationship between humans and the natural world. Some Zulu songs attempt to
represent something of the nature and appearance of the bird as well as its cry
as well as alluding to humanity (Finnigan p247-248)
Narratives
Narratives
are a communal act, with the audience playing a vital role. The performer
usually is a grandmother. She creates new narratives as well as repeat old
ones. The storyteller does not preach, but deals in themes that convey the
importance of adherence to custom, morality, cultural values and harmonious
community life (Groenewalt p128-134). These stories are based on animal, human,
historic, mythical characters. Animal narratives are usually lighthearted and
end with a kind of proverb which convey some cultural of moral value. These
narratives can also be an explanation for behavior seen in the world, like why
the Zebra has no tail (Finnigan p346-347). Satire or comment on human society
is often present in these animal narratives (Finnigan p351).
Narratives centered around humans
are the most important. Some are concerned with significant events or persons,
some with everyday life, some contain a moralizing conclusion. Many of these
which are based on everyday life deal with such common issues as the
co-existence of two wives (Finnigan354-356). Legends are seen as locally true.
They differ from myths in that they are set in more recent time. There is far
more interest in historical figures than in myths (Finnigan p368-367).
Proverbs
Proverbs
appear in rich abundance in most African cultures, especially the southern
Bantu. Proverbs provide a glimpse into the thoughts of the past. But mainly
contain words of wisdom. Proverbs demonstrate a feeling for language, for
imagery and for the expression of abstract ideas. One of the most noticeable
characteristics is the allusive wording. Proverbs are very closely connected to
other forms of oral literature and many are expressed in a very poetic form
(Finnigan 389-392). Proverbs can be comments on what is seen to be the real
nature of people of things, general advice and deeper meanings. The are often
very figurative, like the Zulu expression that something is only a passing
phase "this thing is like the dew which showers down". The most
common form of proverbs is those with metaphorical comparisons. Often a comment
is made on human activity by referring to animal activity (Finnigan p395-397).
Proverbs and sometimes riddles can play a very important role in education,
especially formal instruction during initiation ceremonies. In a non-literate society these proverbs are
a means for relative formal education and transmission of cultural tradition.
Because proverbs are so generalized they are suitable for expressing socially
prescribed actions and attitudes. But proverbs can also be a means of insulting
a superior, making an effective point in a speech and getting at an opponent.
The latent function is to transmit a worldview (Finnigan p413-414). Proverbs
are also typically used as a means of warning or to comment on another's
actions (Finnigan p424).
Drum language
Drum
language is seen as a form of literature rather than a form of music since it
is a direct representation of the spoken language by simulating the tone and
rhythm of speech. These messages can only be fully understood when translated
into words. African language is highly tonal, and often the meaning is not
dependant on phonetics but on the tone. Further helping in understanding is the
rhythmic pattern as well as common phrases. These drum messages are much longer
than the actual message since much repetition is needed and the stereotypical
phrases are extra long to prevent confusion with words of same tone and rhythm.
Drum language can be seen as a form of writing, better suited to such a tonal
language. But it is primarily a communication tool (Finnegan p481-482).
Drama
Drama
does not occur in such a common and developed form in Africa as it does in
Western culture. What do exist though are
mimic dances, masquerades and limited forms of drama. Storytelling is often
enacted to such a degree that the speech and actions of the characters form a
dramatic dialogue. Another form is the dramatic art of the Khomani Bushman plays
in which there is no linguistic component. The action is portrayed by the
imitations of the actors. The southern Bushmen attempt to resemble animals
through using paint or the skins and horns of the animals in these dramas,
which represent the different stages of the hunt (Finnigan p500-503).
Art
Art
is a very common communication medium that is used in al cultures. The amount
of information that can be conveyed in a single image is immense. This is also
true for African art, especially the rock-art of the San people. Rock art is a
form of narrative, but it is not a simple representation of daily life and the
animal world. Although these aspects are present in detail they are only seen
through a filter, the trance dance (Lewis-Williams p28). There are depictions
that convey a lot of information on the actual dance as well as the beliefs
associated with the dance, like that of the shaman who is able to control the
herds of animals through the trance (Lewis-Williams p30-33). Rock art must be
seen as an example of polysemy- carrying multiple meanings (Lewis-Williams
p76). The most important aspect of the
rock art engravings is the shamanistic beliefs and rituals, but a lot of
ideology and social instruction filters through (Lewis-Williams p83).
Works Cited
Courlander. A Treasury of African
Folklore. Crown Publishers, New York. 1975
Finnegan. Oral Literature in Africa.
Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1970
Lewis-Williams. Discovering Southern
African Rock Art. David Philip Publishers, South Africa. 1990
Groenewald. Oral Studies in Southern
Africa. Human Science Research council, South Africa. 1990.
Welsh Asante, Karaimu. African
Dance. African World Press. New York.
1998
Different Creation Beliefs found in
South Africa
Shangaan Creation belief
N'wari
the bird god laid an egg in a hole in a river reed. After rime the reed burst
and the first man emerged. He then builds himself a mud-daubed hut with a
thatched roof. He later married, although the myth does not say were the woman
came from. His many children became the base for the growth of the Tsonga
(Courlander, p 401).
amaNguni Creation belief
Unkulukulu
(the old one) is the creator of man. He broke off from a bed of reeds. Man, who
also broke off from the bed of reeds followed him. Unkulunkulu thus created
man, animals, snakes, birds, water and mountains, the sun and the moon, all
from the bed of reeds (Jackobs, p53).
The San and baTswana Creation Belief
Creation
happened at the waterhole of Lowe in Botswana. The waterhole is in a rocky
river bed and about 2,5 m deep. It was in this waterhole that the first humans
and animals were locked up in. The creator, called Matsieng of Modimo let then
all out. Matsieng came from a cave and had only one leg. He disliked his
creation and thus returned to his cave. The water hole of Lowe is marked with
man made footprints of humans and animals (Jackobs, p53)
The Creation of the First Bushmen
=Um=um-Borose,
a woman who came from the son, is the mother of the first Bushmen. She had a
dog, which attacked her unexpectedly one day while she was feeding it.
/Ause-=wa-djuba went past and saw what happened. He went to were =Um=um-Borose
laid and pierced her with his arrow to see if she was really dead. To his
surprise a human came out of the hole. He pierced her again and more humans
came out of her inside. The people walked away into the forest and over the
plains. =Um=um-Borose remained lying there. She became the sand of the
Kgalagadi. (Fourie, p17).
baPedi Creation Belief
God
(Modimo) has the personal name of Kgobe. He is rather indistinct but the people
agree that he is male, has only one leg and that his son is called Kgobeane.
Kgobe created the world with all the animals and plants. After this his son,
Kgobeane, created the first man (Jackobs, p56)
Taoist Creation Belief
First
there was the Tao, who rested in mysterious emptiness. Then came Vast Prime
(Hongyuan), who later divided and thus came Coagulated Prime (Hunyuan). Then
there was grand Antecedence (Taichu) to whom Tao taught the Scripture of
Opening the Cosmos. In Taichu he separated above and below, inside and out,
female and male, white and black. But when Hunyuan obtained the Scriptures
clear and turbid separated in heaven and earth.
Tao
desired to transform beings, thus he created the sun and the moon to
illuminate. He than brought fourth the first humans. He took the essence of
heaven and the essence of earth, joined them and made man.
First
all species of life was without sign or shape but then received a bit of energy
and was thus complete.
When
Grand Antecedence came to an end there came Grand Initiation. To whom Tao
taught the Scripture of Grand Initiation, who was the beginning of myriad
beings. It perfected all signs. Energy became solid and divided into yin and
yang.
The
rest of the creation is also ordered as above. Much still happened, will still
complete (Kohn, p36-38).
Creation according to the Mythology
of Brahma
Brahma
conceived of creating gods, men fathers and demons. He brought fourth darkness
and demons were born. He abandons his body from which the demons came fourth
and it became night. This process is repeated to create gods and men. Brahma
then created various kinds of divine beings. They come fourth from different
parts of Brahma's body and their characteristics depend on Brahma's mood at the
time of their creation. Brahma also creates animals and plants from different
parts of his body (Baily, p107-110).
Islamic Creation Beliefs
God
creates by saying 'Be' and it is done (Qur'an xxxvi 82). God created heaven and
earth (Qur'an ii 117) and man which he formed out of clay (Quar'an xxiii
12-13). Islamic beliefs on the creation is very closely linked to Christian and
Jewish creation beliefs, as set out in Genesis.
Genesis Creation Belief
First
there was only God. He was alone in utter emptiness. God first created the
heavens and the earth, but it was still formless and empty. The Creation
process takes place in six stages, or days. The first stage is the creation of
light, being day and night. On the second day God separated the waters from
above and below and thus created sky. The second stage was when the waters were
gathered in one place and land appeared.
As well as the creation of plants.
The third day was when the sun, stars and moon were created: and so the
reckoning of time started. On the fourth day God created fish in the sea and
the birds in the sky, and on the fifth day he created animals on land. Lastly
God made man to be the ruler of what is in the seas, on the land and in the
skies (Genisis 1:1-27, the Holy Bible).
Works Cited
Baily, The Mythlogy of Brahma.
Oxford University press, 1983
Courlander. A Treasury of African
Foklore. Crown Publichers, New York, 1975)
Fourie, Coral. Splinters from the
Fire. P17
Jackobs, M. OML 210 Class Notes
Kohn, Livia. The Taoist Experience,
State University of New York Press, 1993
The holy Bible, new International
version. Zondervan Publishing House. 1995
The Holy Qur'an, translated by
Khalik al-Rawaf. Islamic Propagation Centre 1946