THE POLITICS OF AUTHORITARIANISM: THE STATE AND
POLITICAL SOLDIERS IN BURMA, INDONESIA, AND THAILAND
By
Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe
M.A., University of British Columbia, 1990
B.A., University of Rangoon, 1961
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
THE FACULTY OF
GRADUATE STUDIES
(Department of Political Science)
We accept this thesis as conforming
to the required standard
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THE
September 1997
Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe, 1997
A B S T R A C T
This thesis
investigates the impact of military rule on the state and society by looking at
three cases from the same geographical region --
This thesis has found that there
are three vital factors influencing the military's decision, having intervened,
to stay on to rule the country. The most
important factor is the emergence of an extraordinary military
strongman-ruler. The second, and
related, factor is military unity -- forged and maintained by the
strongman-ruler and bound by the myth that the soldiers are the guardians and saviors of the state.
The military supports the ruler and is in turn rewarded by him, and
becomes a privileged class. Together
they dominate and control other state and societal forces. In fact, while military-authoritarian states
are highly autonomous from society, it is clear that the state is not well
insulated from abuse by its own elites.
The third factor is the extent to which the strongman-ruler is
constrained by having to share power with an unimpeachable force (a person,
ideal, or myth). This thesis has found
that military rulers in
This thesis has also found
significant variations in military-authoritarian states. They range from a nearly pure praetorian
example to a tentative quasi-democratic set up -- resulting from historical
circumstances combined with the vision, political will and astuteness of the
strongman-ruler, his concern with his legacy, and the presence or not of an
important constraining force. The
military has played a dominant role in politics in
T A B L E O F
C O N T E N T S
Abstract
..............................................................................................ii
Glossary .............................................................................................v
Acknowledgement
..............................................................................x
CHAPTER ONE:
..............................................................................1
INTRODUCTION: SOLDIERS OR
POLITICIANS?
CHAPTER TWO:
.........................................................................................29
THE MILITARY AND THE STATE
CHAPTER THREE:
.......................................................................................66
AUTHORITARIAN DOMINATION
CHAPTER FOUR:
........................................................................................141
OF AUTHORITARIAN DOMINATION
CHAPTER FIVE:
..........................................................................................210
OF AUTHORITARIAN DOMINATION
CHAPTER SIX: ................................................................................276
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION: THE POLITICS OF
AUTHORITARIAN DOMINATION
BIBLOGRAPHY .............................................................................306-332
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G L O S S A R Y
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B U R M A :
Abha
-- Revered Father (a term used by
soldiers in reference to Ne Win)
AFPFL --
Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League
Adipati --
Supreme Leader (a title adopted by Dr.Ba Maw)
Anya-Manya Th'bawtra --
Burmese Socialist doctrine (See SCME)
Bama Pri-Ma -- Bama Mother-country
Bama Tatmadaw -- The
Burma Army (or Tatmadaw)
Baungbee-khyot
-- Ex-military officer (Burmese
slang)
BCP --
Burma Communist Party (the White Flag Communist of Thakin
Than
Tun),
BDA --
Burma Defence Army, the forerunner of the current Burma Army
BIA --
Burma Independence Army, the forerunnerof the
current Burma Army
BNA --
Burma National Army, the predecessor of the current Burma Army
Bo -- (Bama and Shan), A
military leader
Bogyoke
-- (Military rank) General
Bogyoke-Wungyi
-- General-Minister
BSPP --
Burmese Socialist Program Party, or Lanzin
Party
Chaofa
-- (Shan) Ruling prince
CPB --
Communist Party, Burma (Red Flag Communist of Thakin
Soe).
DAB --
Democratic Alliance of Burma
Dobama Asi-Ayone -- We Bama Movement (Dobama)
DSI --
The Defence Service Institute
DDSI --
The Directorate of Defence Service Intelligence
Duwa
-- (Kachin) ruling chief
KIA --
Kachin Independence Army
KKY -- ( Ka-Kwe-Ye):
Homeguard units
KMT --
(Kuomintang): Nationalist Chinese of Chiang Kai-shek
KNU --
Karen National Union
LORC --
Law and Order Restoration Committee
Lu-Myo
-- Race, nation, humankind
Luptha-Prithu
-- The working people
MIS (Em-I) --
Military Intelligence Service
Mranma Sosheilit Lanzin Party
-- The Burmese Socialist Program
Party (BSPP)
NCGUB --
National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma
NLD --
National League for Democracy
NSA --
National Solidarity Association
NUF --
National Unity Front
NUP --
National Unity Party
The Panglong Agreement -- An Agreement signed in 1947, forming the
basis of
the 947-48 Constitution of the Union of Burma
PBF --
Patriotic Burmese Force
Pri
-- (or Pyi,
Burmese) country
Prithu Hluttaw -- People's
Parliament
Prithu-Yebaw
-- People's Volunteer
Organization (PVO)
Pyinnya-tat -- An
educated person
Rakhine People's Liberation Organization -- A Rakhine rebel army
RC --
The Revolutionary Council (1962-1974)
SAC --
Security and Administrative Committee
Saw-phaya
-- (Karenni) Ruling prince
SCME --
System of Correlation of Man and His Environment
SLORC --
State Law and Order Restoration Council
SSA --
Shan State Army
SNLD --
Shan National League for Democracy
Thakin -- (Burmese) Master, overlord
Union Party -- A political party led by U Nu (1960-1962)
USDA --
Union Solidarity Development Association
T H A I L A N D :
BPP --
Border Patrol Police
The Chakri dynasty
-- The currently reigning royal
house
Chart --
Nation
Chart Thai Party -- The Thai Nation Party
Class 5 -- Fifth graduating class of the Military
Academy after the adoption of the
West Point curriculum
CPT --
The Communist Party of Thailand
FFT --
Farmers Federation of Thailand
Isan -- The Northeastern
region
ISOC --
Internal Security Operation Command
Kharatchakarn
-- Officials, civil servants,
bureaucrats
Luang
-- A title bestowed on high
official (no longer current)
Muang Thai --
Informal term for Thailand
Nak-phendin -- Those "uselessly weighing down the
earth", a term applied to
leftists and
radicals in 1973-76
NAP --
New Aspiration Party (of Chaovalit Yongchaiyuth, the current Prime
Minister)
Nawapol
-- A rightwing organization of
the urban middle and upper class
NSCT --
National Students Centre of Thailand
Phu-noi
-- "Small" people; an
"inferior", or subordinate person(s)
Phu-yai
-- "Big" man; a
"superior" person(s)
Prachachon
-- The People
Prathet Thai --
Formal term for Thailand
Ramwong
-- A popular folk dance
Rath Niyom --
Cultural Edicts of Pibul Songkhram
Red Gaur -- A rightwing para-military
body of vocational students
Sangchat
-- Nation-building
SAP --
Social Action Party
Sawasdi
-- A term of greeting
Seri Thai -- The Anti-Japanese ("Free Thai")
Movement
Siam --
The name of the country before "Thailand" was adopted in 1939.
UTPP --
The United Thai People's Party
Village Scouts -- A royal-sponsored civil-action organization
The Young Turks -- A radical officers group
I N D O N E S I A :
Abangan
-- nominal Muslim
ABRI --
Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia, the current Armed Forces
Adat
-- Customary law
Aksi Sepihak --
Unilateral action
BKR --
Bandan Keamanan Rakyat, a forerunner of ABRI
BAKIN --
State Intelligence Coordinating Body
BAKORSTANAS -- National Stability Coordination Board
Budi Utomo -- An
early nationalist organization or movement
Bupati
-- Regent, administrator
Dharma Wanita
-- The official Women's body
DPA --
Supreme Advisory Council
DPR --
Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, Parliament
Dwi Fungsi --
Dual Function
Dwi-Tunggal
-- Joint Leadership (of Sukarno
and Hatta)
The Fifth Force -- A force of armed workers and peasants
Gerwani
-- Women's Militia (of the PKI)
Gestapu
-- The 30 September Movement
Golkar -- Golongan Karya, Functional Groups (the government's party)
Gotong Royong --
Mutual assistance
HANKAM -- Department of Defence and Security
Hizb'ulla
-- Army of Allah
HMI --
Islam University Students Association
ICMI --
Association of Muslim Intellectuals
IGGI --
Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia
Inkopad
-- The Army's trading firm
IP-KI --
The League of Upholders of Indonesian Independence
KAMI --
Indonesian Students Action Group
Konfrontasi
-- Confrontation with Malaysia,
"Crush Malaysia" campaign
KOPKAMTIB -- Operation Command for the Restoration of
Security and Order
KORPRI -- Civil Servants Association
KOTI --
Supreme Operation Command ("Crush Malaysia" campaign)
KNIL --
The Royal Netherlands Indies Army
KNIP --
Central Indonesian National Committee
KOSTAD -- Strategic Reserve Command
Laskar Rakyat --
People's Militia (of the PKI)
LBH --
Legal Aid Society
LPSM --
Institute for Promoting Self-Reliant Community Development
LSM --
Self-Reliant Community Development Institute
MANIPOL -- The Political Manifesto of 1959
Marhaenism
-- Sukarno's Creed of the
"Little People"
Masjumi
-- The Council of Indonesian
Muslim Associations
MKGR --
Family Mutual Help Association
MPR --
Majelis Permusyawaratan
Rakyat, People's Consultative Assembly
Mufakat
-- Consensus
Murba -- The Proletarian Party; a communist faction of
Tan Malaka and Adam
Malik
Musyawara
-- Consultation
NASAKOM -- Nationalism, Religion, and Communism
Nekolim
-- The forces of Neocolonialism, Colonialism, and Imperialism
NU --
Nahdlatul Ulama
(Council of Muslim Scholars)
P4 --
Pancasila Indoctrination
Pancasila
-- Five Ideological Principles
Pemuda
-- Politicized
youth, youth movement
Perhimpunan Indonesia -- The
Indonesian Association
Pertamina
-- National Oil and Gas Mining
Agency
PETA --
Volunteer Force for the Defence of Java, a forerunner of ABRI
Petisi 50
-- Petition 50 group
PDI --
Indonesian Democratic Party (the non-Islamic party)
PKI --
Communist Party of Indonesia
PNI --
Partai Nasional
Indonesia, or Indonesian National Party
PPP --
Development Unity Party (the Islamic Party)
PPPKI --
Permufakatan Perhimpunan
Politik Kebangsaan
(Committee for the Prep-
aration
of Indonesian Independence)
PRRI --
The Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia
Priyayi
-- The official class (roughly,
an aristocracy)
PSI --
The Socialist Party of Indonesia
Rakyat
-- The People, the common people,
the masses
Santri
-- Strict or devout Muslim
Sarekat Islam
-- The Islamic Union
Sekber Golkar --
Joint-Secretariat of Functional groups
SOB --
State of Siege; Martial Law
SOBSI --
Central Organization of All Indonesian Workers
SOKSI --
Central Organization of Indonesian Socialist Workers
Supersemar
-- Letter of March 11 (1966)
TKR --
Tentara Keamanan Rakyat, a forerunner of ABRI
TKR --
Tentara Keselamatan Rakyat, a forerunner ABRI
TNI --
Tentara Nasional
Indonesia, a forerunner of ABRI
TRI --
Tentara Republik
Indonesia, a forerunner of ABRI
USDEK --
The 1945 Constitution, Indonesian Socialism, Guided Democracy,
Guided Economy, and
Indonesian Ideology
VOC --
(Vereenigde Oost-Indische
Compagnie) The Netherlands East India
Company
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The
production of this dissertation, like all such labor,
has been very rigorous and difficult, involving years of thoughts, occasional
"road-blocks", and being "unlinked" from "real"
life and "normal" people. It
could not therefore have been completed without the kindness and support of
many people, especially my family: Nu Nu, Sawan, and Onjana.
First of all, I owe much to
Professor Diane Mauzy who -- despite the
inconveniences I must have caused, academically or otherwise -- has been
long-suffering and kindly constructive, making my work much, much better. I also owe much to Professor R.Stephen Milne for his help and
great wisdom. Much gratitude is owed to
Professors John Wood, Phillip Resnick, Robert Jackson, and Terry McGee, members of my supervisory
committee. I would also like to thank
the "three pillars" of the department: Dory Urbano,
Nancy Mina, and Petula Muller, who were always
helpful and cheerful, and also the department's "higher-ups" for
providing me from time to time with what is the life-blood of a graduate
student, a Teaching Assistantship. I
also owe much to fellow graduate students for their
stimulating presence.
Because they contributed
enormously to my intellectual growth, I am much indebted to Professors
Alexander Woodside (History), Terry McGee (Geography), Y.C. Chang (Sociology),
and to Lonny Carlile, especially, and Diane Mauzy, Philip Resnick, and John
Wood (Political Science). They have not
only inspired but have taught me well the art of rigorous analysis and the
meaning of scholarship.
The works of scholars and
analysts on the countries I have examined --
I am greatly indebted to the
Department of History for the Frederic Soward
Foundation Award in 1990, the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of
Canada for a doctoral Fellowship in 1991-1994, and the Canada-ASEAN Research
Travel Grant, for a grant which allowed me to visit Southeast Asian again on a
field research trip in 1993. In the
above regard, my gratitude to the late Dr.Kernial Sandhu of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies,
Singapore, and as well the Institute's helpful and cheerful staff, and Dr. Pat
Lim, Mr. Tee Teo Lee, and a host of scholars and
experts I have had the good fortune to interact with while at the
Institute.
My research trip to
Last, but not the least, I am
grateful for having an understanding wife, Nu Nu Myint, who gave, without any reservation, more than moral
support, and to my son and daughter, Sawan and Onjana, for their excellent and undemanding behavior despite being full-fledged Canadian
teenagers.