Subject: [sci.bio.food-science] Welcome - Read this First! (FAQ 2/3)

From: [email-masked] (Paul E. J. King)
Date: 27 Jul 1996 11:58:02 GMT

Archive-Name: sci/food-science-faq/part2

Posting-Frequency: weekly
Last-modified: 1995/05/04

RE-POST: FAQ  2/3- SCI.BIO.FOOD-SCIENCE Frequently-Asked Questions

See 1/3 for preliminary notes and changes to this FAQ. See this part also for a
list of food science related sites or a list of abbreviations.

See 3/3 for general questions and answers about food science.

*******************************************************************************

IV.DEFINITIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS OF FOOD RELATED TERMS

         In the following list of definitions of food-related words and
    phrases, some of the items relate to the requirements under UK and/or
    European laws, regulations or Codes of Practice. In the near future
    anther list will be given referring to the requirements under US laws
    and regulations, and, in time, those of other countries.

         Any questions or comments about these definitions and
    interpretations should be directed to: <[email-masked]

    INTRODUCTION

         In 1987, the Technical and Legislative Committee (TLC) of the
    Institute of Food Science & Technology, conscious that many
    descriptions of, or claims about, foods were made using ill-defined
    terms which were potentially misleading, set out to remedy that
    situation. Making use both of published material and the expertise of
    the Committee, it prepared and issued objective "definitions" for
    certain key words, a few of which were not considered potentially
    confusing but merely useful to include.

         The intention was not strict definitions in the dictionary
    sense. Some were accounts or interpretations of the limitations
    within which the use of a particular term was justified. Moreover,
    the intention was not to produce a comprehensive dictionary of
    food-related terms, but rather a guide to food scientists and
    technologists, and others professionally concerned with descriptions
    of foods, particularly in labelling and advertising. In 1989, the
    list was expanded and published in Food Science & Technology Today 3
    (2), 128-9.

         In the period since that publication, some of those terms have
    been "officially" defined in legislation, official guidelines or
    Codes of Practice - and it is gratifying to note the extent to which
    these follow the lines of the definitions in the 1989 document. In
    the same period, members of IFST and of the Association of Public
    Analysts have suggested additional terms that are in common usage but
    are ill-defined or sometimes misused. Accordingly, the two
    professional bodies have decided to produce jointly an updated list.

         The list given here includes some terms that were in the 1989
    list (in some cases modified or updated); and some terms that have
    been defined in the interim in legislation or in codes or guides.
    Many of the terms listed here have wider connotations in relation to
    which they may be defined or interpreted; but here it is only the
    food-related usage that is addressed.

         We draw attention to the category Marketing Terms at the end of
    this document, in which have been listed a number of terms often used
    without real meaning in relation to manufactured food products.

         As before, it is hoped that the use, by professionals, of these
    definitions and interpretations will help to minimise confusion and
    misleading use of the terms. With any such exercise, some readers
    will have differing views on individual items, or on the desirability
    of including other terms. IFST and APA will be glad to receive
    constructive comments from members, for consideration when this
    document is next revised and updated.

         Finally, it is pointed out that definitions other than those
    derived from EU or UK legislation, and all interpretations expressed
    here, are opinion, albeit opinion based on the views of the experts
    involved in their compilation. The information in this document may
    not be taken as binding on Public Analysts or enforcement authorities,
    and, in the event of dispute, only the courts can decide.

                                                            Malvern Barnett
                                                            J Ralph Blanchfield

Biopolymer 

         A compound consisting of repeating units of a single
    biologically produced molecule, either straight chain or branched,
    e.g. amylose, amylopectin and cellulose.

Biotechnology

         The application of biological science to the production,
    modification or processing of materials. It encompasses
    long-established activities such as traditional plant and animal
    breeding, brewing, bread-making and effluent treatment, and the more
    modern techniques of genetic modification and the use of fermentation
    technology for the production of some novel protein foods. Though
    meal preparation is arguably a form of biotechnology, it is already
    covered in other newsgroups, such as rec.cooking.* hierarchy.

Boiled

         Having been cooked in boiling water (or, by extension, by
    steaming, as in 'boil-in-the-bag').

Chilled food

         Perishable food which, to extend the time during which it
    remains wholesome, is kept within a specified range of temperature
    usually between 2 and 8 degC.

Chilled food chain

         The sequence of temperature controlled operations after initial
    harvesting, and including chilled transport, cooling during and after
    production, chilled storage, distribution and retailing, through to
    domestic storage until preparation for final consumption.

Comercial Sterility

         A sterile product is one free from viable microorganisms, i.e.
    those capable of reproducing under optimum conditions for growth.
    'Commercial sterility' is a term commonly used in the canning
    industry meaning the condition achieved by the application of heat
    sufficient to render the processed product free from viable
    microorganisms (including those of known public health significance),
    capable of growing in the food under normal non-refrigerated
    temperatures at which the food is likely to be held during
    distribution and storage.

Convenience food

         A manufactured product requiring little or no preparation (other
    than heating, diluting or dissolving in water, where appropriate)
    before consumption.

Cooked

         Having been subjected to a heating process sufficient to render
    the food suitable for consumption.

Critical control point

         Any point in a specific food system where loss of control may
    result in an unacceptable risk.

Crude fibre

         The structural component of the plant cell wall being the
    residue obtained after consecutive acid and alkali digestion of a
    food or food material. Crude fibre is determined for nutritional
    declarations on animal feeding stuffs and also for defining brown
    bread in the Bread and Flour Regulations 1984.

Dairy

         When used as a descriptive term for food, refers exclusively to
    milk and milk products. In the EU its use is legally governed by
    Council Regulation 1898/87 on the Protection of Designations used in
    the marketing of Milk and Milk Products, as supplemented by
    Commission Decision 888/566/EEC. Help in interpreting some of these
    provisions was given by a MAFF Guidance Note (November 1989). The
    Council Regulation was subsequently implemented by the UK in the Milk
    and Milk Products (Protection of Designations) Regulations 1990.

Dehydrated (food)

         Food or food products from which all but a small percentage of
    the water has been removed under controlled conditions.

Designer food(s)

         See Functional Foods and Marketing Terms.

Disinfection

         The application of effective chemical or physical agents or
    processes to a cleaned surface or to a water supply to reduce the
    number of microorganisms to a level consistent with good hygiene
    practice.

Dietary fibre

         In scientific terms, dietary fibre is a mixture of components
    derived from plant cell wall material and non-structural
    polysaccharides, as well as non-starch polysaccharides added to
    foods. It includes non-digestible polysaccharides such as cellulose,
    hemicelluloses, gums, pectins, mucilages and lignin. From a nutrition
    point of view, some authorities also include 'resistant starch' (i.e.
    starch that is resistant to enzymic degradation, usually as a result
    of processing).

         Currently, there is no universally accepted method for
    determination of dietary fibre. For some years the UK Ministry of
    Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) has adopted the definition,
    for the purposes of label declaration, that dietary fibre is
    non-starch polysaccharides as determined by the Englyst method; but
    in Guidelines issued in March 1994, MAFF indicated that analysts may
    use any other methods which give similar results. The Englyst method
    excludes resistant starch. Most EU countries and the USA use the AOAC
    Prosky method. This method includes resistant starch and the value
    for dietary fibre obtained is therefore invariably higher than that
    by the Englyst method. It should be noted, however, that no
    recognised analytical method fully corresponds to biological
    performance.

Emulsion

         A term descriptive of a food or food material consisting of a
    stable blend of two or more otherwise immiscible liquids, usually an
    oil and an aqueous phase, achieved by appropriate physical means and
    usually with the incorporation of emulsifying and stabilising agents.

Enriched

         See "fortified foods"

Fast Food

         This term is not descriptive of food per se, but categorises a
    type of catering outlet, providing, within seconds of being ordered,
    counter delivery of freshly-prepared food items capable of being
    eaten without cutlery. This delivery is mainly dependent on
    scheduling based on accurate anticipation of fluctuating demand, a
    production system and staff capable of keeping pace with it, and
    sufficient counter servers to minimise queuing. Because some foods
    (e.g. burgers) have lent themselves more readily to this type of
    operation, the term has come to be applied to them too.

Fermentation

         The process of chemical change in animal or plant material,
    catalysed by enzymes of biological origin. It may be intended, as in
    brewing of beer or vinegar, or unintended and undesirable, as in food
    spoilage.

Fermented (food)

         Food material having been subjected to fermentation

Fibre

         Sometimes used synonymously with "dietary fibre" including in
    European and UK nutrition labelling legislation

Flavour/flavoured

         The term 'flavour' may have reference to sensory quality of a
    food as perceived by a combination of smell and taste. When used as a
    noun, 'flavour', for which the legally correct term is 'flavouring',
    is defined in the UK Flavouring in Food Regulations 1992 as a
    material used to impart odour, taste or both to a food.

Food

         The Codex Alimentarius defines 'Food' as "any substance, whether
    processed, semi processed or raw, which is intended for human
    consumption and includes drink, chewing gum and any substance which
    has been used in the manufacture, preparation or treatment of food,
    but does not include cosmetics or tobacco or substances only used as
    drugs".

         In the UK Food Safety Act 1990, 'food' is defined as including
    drink, food ingredients, food additives, chewing gum and similar
    substances, but excluding live animals or live fish (unless consumed
    alive), animal feeds, controlled drugs and medicinal products bearing
    a product licence. This definition states what 'food' includes and
    excludes (similarly to the latter part of the Codex definition) but
    it is deficient in failing to define what food is.

Food hygiene

         All environmental factors, practices, processes and precautions
    involved in protecting food from contamination by any agency, and
    preventing any organism present from multiplying to an extent that
    would expose consumers to risk or result in premature spoilage or
    decomposition of food.

Fortified (food)

         Three separate circumstances may be defined: Restored, enriched,
    and fortified foods, as described here:

         Restore

               the addition of nutrients to foods in order to restore the level
         of those nutrients that were originally present, but have been
         destroyed or lost in processing.

         Enrich

                   The addition to a food of one or more nutrients which were
         already present in that food in lower than desirable amounts.

         Fortify

               The addition to a food of significant quantities of a nutrient
         that was not originally present in that food or was present only in
         nutritionally insignificant amount.

Free from ....

         For food to be described as 'free from X' (or by terms having a
    similar import) the food, at the point of sale, must be either free
    from X when tested by a standard reference method of analysis or it
    must contain no more than a specified maximum of X.

Free from added ....

         If a food in its original state contains X, it may be described
    as 'free from added X' (or by terms having a similar import) only if
    no X has been introduced, directly or indirectly, via any ingredient
    or during production, manufacture, processing, packaging, storage,
    distribution or point of sale. MAFF Guidelines (1993) specify that
    'no added sugar' means that no sugars, or foods composed mainly of
    sugars, should be added to a food or any of its ingredients; and that
    'no added salt' means that no salt or sodium compounds should be
    added to the food or to any of its ingredients.

         It should be noted, however, that in the instance of a food
    which strictly complies with the foregoing but itself has a high
    sugar content (for example date paste) the description 'no added
    sugar', though true, could be held to be misleading (Section 3(2) of
    the Trade Descriptions Act 1968).

Fresh

         The condition of a short shelf-life perishable unprocessed food
    prior to perceptible evidence of physical, chemical or
    microbiological change. Fresh is normally applied to unprocessed
    foods e.g. fresh eggs, fresh meat, showing that they are in their
    original state. It is also used in apparently contradictory terms,
    e.g. fresh pasteurised cream to distinguish it from more highly
    processed sterilised cream.

Functional

         Fulfilling a specific physical, chemical or biological function.

Functional food(s)

         All foods are functional, and to term some (as distinct from
    others) as 'functional' is illogical. The term is one of the
    marketing-coined names (others are 'neutraceuticals' and 'designer
    foods') to categorise foods which are considered or claimed to offer
    specific health benefits while avoiding the requirement to be
    licensed medicines (See Marketing terms, below).

Genetic modification

         see FAQ in section V (including within-species and
    trans-species) Part 2, Q 7, 8, and 9

Genetically modified-See FAQ same sections as above

Genuine

         'Genuine' in connection with foods means an authentic type or
    source. It serves to distinguish ingredients which might otherwise be
    synthetic (e.g. 'vanilla ice cream, made with genuine vanilla') or it
    may establish the origin or type of a food (e.g. genuine Manzanilla
    olives, genuine Italian olive oil).

GMP

         'Good manufacturing practice' (GMP) is that part of a food
    control operation aimed at ensuring that products are consistently
    manufactured to a specified quality appropriate to their intended
    use. It thus has two complementary and interacting components; the
    manufacturing operation itself and the control system and procedures.
    Reference should be made to the IFST publication 'Food and Drink -
    Good Manufacturing Practice: A Guide to its Responsible Management'.
    (3rd Edition, 1991).

HACCP

         Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a preventive
    system of food control. It involves examining and analysing every
    stage of a food-related operation to identify and assess hazards
    (q.v., below); determining the 'critical control points' (q.v.,
    above) at which action is required to control the identified hazards;
    establishing the critical limits that must be met at, and procedures
    to monitor, each critical control point; establishing corrective
    procedures when a deviation is identified by monitoring;
    documentation of the HACCP plan and verification procedures to
    establish that it is working correctly.

HAZOP

         Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) is a systematic
    structured approach to questioning the sequential stages of a
    proposed operation in order to optimise the efficiency and the
    management of risk. Thus, the application of HAZOP to the design of a
    proposed food-related operation, should result in a system in which
    as many critical control points as possible have been eliminated,
    making the subsequent application of HACCP during subsequent
    operations much easier to carry out.

Hazard

         Any intrinsic property of a system, operation, material or
    situation that could, in certain circumstances, lead to an adverse
    consequence. In food terms, this particularly refers to an adverse
    consequence (health risk or loss by spoilage) to the consumer.

Health food

         This is essentially a marketing term, the meaning of which has
    never been clear. There is no legal basis and no evident objective
    justification for the term, which implies a superiority over foods
    not so described. So-called health foods fall into four main
    categories, namely

         1) products in respect of which there is adequate scientific
    substantiation for the specific permissible nutrition and/or health
    claims made, and which are labelled in accordance with relevant
    legislation;

         2) those in respect of which there is 'folklore' and some
    scientific evidence for the claims, but falling short of
    substantiation;

         3) those making claims for which there is little or no
    scientific evidence;

         4) other products that are frequently sold in health food shops
    e.g. 'wholefoods' (q.v.).

         It should be noted that some products in categories 2 and 3 have
    given rise to concerns about their safety, which, in certain cases,
    have led to prohibition.

Hermetically sealed container

         Strictly, an 'hermetically sealed container' is one that is
    sealed so as to be air-tight. Commercially sterile food products may
    be packed in non-metallic containers that are not completely
    air-tight. In the latter context, an 'hermetically sealed container'
    has been defined as one that is designed and intended to be secure
    against entry of microorganisms.

High in .....

         Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
    legally-specified minimum, or a legally-specified percentage increase
    compared with a product not making a "high in" claim for the
    parameters involved."

Higher in (increased) .....

         Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
    legally-specified percentage increase compared with a product not
    making such a claim, for the parameter involved.

Home made

         This term has no defined meaning but it implies that a food has
    been prepared on a small scale, either on domestic premises or
    premises not associated with large scale manufacture.

Improved

         Primarily a marketing term, and sometimes used in conjunction
    with 'new', it may cover a wide variety of circumstances, including
    minor cosmetic changes, cost-cutting changes, and formulation changes
    to make the product more acceptable to purchasers. It is the latter
    case that most properly justifies the use of the term.

Instant

         This term is strictly justified only in the cases of dry powders
    or mixes which rehydrate instantly, i.e. in a matter of a few seconds
    (e.g. instant coffee, instant tea) and should be reserved for such
    speedy action. By extension, however, the term has sometimes been
    misused by applying it to dry mix products which rehydrate faster
    than some others but still take a few minutes rather than a few
    seconds. For the latter, a term such as 'rapid' would be more
    appropriate.

Irradiated

         Having been subjected to ionising radiation.

Isotonic

         A term applied to a liquid product, e.g. a drink, having osmotic
    properties approximating to those of blood serum, i.e. 280 milli-
    osmoles per kg.

Light/Lite

         These terms are used to signify a lower energy or lower fat
    version of a particular food, [and therefore should comply with
    conditions applying to a reduced .... claim. (see Reduced .......)].
    That would imply at least 25% reduction of the norm, but some opinion
    holds that it should mean at least 50% reduction.

Low calorie/low energy

         A description which may be applied to foods which, when ready
    for consumption, have an energy value no greater than 167 kJ (40
    kcal) per 100 g (for the purposes of theUK Food Labelling Regulations
    1984, intense sweeteners and similar products are exempted from this
    limit).

Low in .....

         Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
    legally-specified maximum or a legally-specified percentage reduction
    compared with a product not making a 'low in' claim for the
    parameters involved.

Manufacture

         The complete cycle of production of a food product from the
    acquisition of all materials, through all stages of subsequent
    processing, packaging and storage, to the despatch of the finished
    product.

Meat

         'Meat' means the flesh, including fat and the skin, rind,
    gristle and sinew in amounts naturally associated with the flesh, of
    any animal or bird which is normally used for human consumption, but
    including only those parts of the carcase listed in Part I of
    Schedule 2 of the UK Meat Products and Spreadable Fish Products
    Regulations 1984.

Natural

         The extensive use of 'natural' in labelling and advertising
    arises from a public misconception, that 'natural' necessarily means
    'safe', healthy', 'nutritious' (in contrast to its perceived
    opposites, 'unnatural', 'unsafe', 'chemical', 'processed', etc). The
    consequent marketing view that 'natural' should be used wherever
    possible to reassure those fearing adverse effects of 'unnatural'
    foods, resulted in widespread indiscriminate use of 'natural' despite
    the efforts of food scientists and technologists in industry and
    enforcement to restrict its use to justifiable cases. Although based
    on a misconception of the significance of 'natural', if some
    consumers wish to select foods which are 'natural', they are entitled
    to information that is meaningful and not misleading.

         In 1989 MAFF published FAC guidelines on the detailed conditions
    and circumstances in which the use of 'natural' or similar terms) was
    justified. In summary these were (a) to describe single foods of a
    traditional nature to which nothing has been added and which have
    been subjected only to such processing as to render them suitable for
    human consumption.; (b) to describe food ingredients obtained from
    recognised food sources, and which meet the criteria in (a); (c) to
    describe flavouring substances (but see 'natural flavouring', below)
    or permitted food additives obtained from recognised food sources by
    appropriate physical processes or traditional food preparation
    processes. The reference in (a) to 'a traditional nature' was
    intended to exclude foods such as mycoprotein which may be products
    of natural sources but were not considered by FAC to accord with the
    public perception of 'natural'. Compound food should not be described
    as 'natural' but could be described as 'made from natural
    ingredients' if all of the ingredients comply with (b) or (c). In the
    cases of foods not complying with the above criteria, 'natural' or
    its derivatives should not be used in brand or fancy names or
    incorporated in meaningless copy. Phrases such as 'naturally good',
    naturally better', etc should be avoided.

         At the time IFST urged that the abuse of the term was such that
    these conditions should be embodied in legislation, but Ministers
    decided otherwise. Nevertheless, although these conditions do not
    have de jure force of law, enforcement authorities and courts can use
    them as yardsticks in assessing whether a particular usage is
    misleading; so to that extent they have de facto legal force.

Natural flavouring

         The UK Flavourings in Food (Amendment) Regulations 1994 now
    provides a legal definition to supersede that provided in relation to
    flavourings in the FAC Guidelines on the use of the word 'natural'.
    It provides that a 'natural' flavouring may be obtained from
    vegetable or animal material by enzymatic or microbiological methods
    as well as physical ones; and that if the name of the flavouring
    refers to its vegetable or animal origin, it can only be designated
    'natural' if it is derived wholly or mainly from the named vegetable
    or animal source.

Nature-Identical

         a term applied to flavouring substances or mixtures thereof that
    have been synthesised or isolated from aromatic raw materials but are
    chemically identical with substances found in natural products used
    for human consumption - in the US this is otherwise known as
    "Artificial flavor".

New 

         Primarily a marketing term, and sometimes used in conjunction
    with 'improved', it may cover a wide variety of circumstances,
    ranging from a minor formulation or packaging change from a
    previously marketed product, through a product that is new to the
    manufacturer but very similar to products already on the market, to a
    product that is really innovative. How long can a product labelled
    'New' continue to be so labelled? There is no official answer, and it
    is extremely difficult to give one. This is because a new product may
    be subjected to test marketing in a particular part of the country,
    and then 'rolled out' progressively until it reaches national
    distribution, perhaps taking up to two years in doing so. A maximum
    of one year from national distribution seems a reasonable limit.

Novel (food, process)

         Food or food ingredients produced from raw material that has not
    hitherto been used (or has been used only to a small extent) for
    human consumption in the area of the world in question, or that is
    produced by a new or extensively modified process not previously used
    in the production of food. A question open to debate is "At what
    point does a novel food (e.g. mycoprotein), having come on the market
    and being fairly widely consumed, cease to be a novel food?"

         Any person or company contemplating marketing in the UK a novel
    food or one containing a novel ingredient should make a prior
    submission to the Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes
    (ACNFP).

Nutraceutical

         See Functional food.

Organic

         (See FAQ part 1, No. 20 for comparisons between organic and
    other foods)

         This term, like 'natural', has been used for marketing purposes,
    in this case to reassure those who fear the use of 'chemicals' in
    agriculture. In the past, the meaning of 'organic' was by no means
    clear, and instances were found of so-called organic products
    containing higher agricultural chemical residues than their
    non-organic counterparts. If some consumers desire organic produce
    they are entitled to know it complies with certain standards.

         The Organic Products Regulations 1992 give effect to EU Council
    Regulation EEC No 2091/91 on organic production of agricultural
    products and foodstuffs. The use of the word 'organic' is restricted
    to agricultural crops and livestock and products made from them, in
    compliance with the detailed provisions of Annexes I, II and III of
    the Council Regulation. The control body in the UK is Food From
    Britain, carrying out its duties through the UK Register of Organic
    Food Standards (UKROFS) which is based at the Food From Britain
    office.

         Compound foods may be described as organic if at least 95% of
    the ingredients (apart from added water) are of organic origin. If
    the compound food contains less than 95% but more than 50% organic
    ingredients, the food may not be described as organic but the organic
    components may be identified as such in the list of ingredients.

Original

         This adjective may be justified in respect of a well established
    product, to distinguish it from subsequent variants marketed by the
    manufacturer. Likewise it could be used in respect of a product which
    was first in the marketplace to distinguish it from subsequent
    'me-too' imitations.

Probiotic

         This term, as a noun or adjective, has previously been used to
    refer to 'microorganisms and substances which contribute to the
    intestinal microbial balance'. However, the inclusion of 'substances'
    created the paradox that antibiotics could be probiotics if they were
    specific enough to destroy harmful bacteria thereby restoring the
    intestinal microbial balance. Accordingly, it is now suggested that
    'probiotic' should be taken to refer to 'a live microbial preparation,
    either as a food or animal feed, which can benefit the host through
    restoring its intestinal microbial balance'.

         The microorganisms most commonly involved as probiotics are the
    Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria, Streptococci and some yeasts and
    moulds. Probiotic preparations may have one or a mixture of organisms
    of various genera, species, sub-species or strains, and may take a
    variety of physical forms.

         There is conflicting evidence, and controversy, about the extent
    to which colon flora can be influenced by oral administration of the
    various microorganisms involved, at the levels found in conventional
    foods.

Processed

         Having been subjected to treatment designed to change one or
    more of the properties (physical, chemical, microbiological, sensory)
    of food.

Processing aid

         In the UK Food Labelling Regulations 1984, 'processing aids' are
    not separately defined; but the definition of 'additive' 'includes
    processing aids insofar as they added to, or used in or on, food'. It
    follows that a processing aid is an additive which facilitates
    processing without significantly influencing the character or
    properties of the finished product. Examples would be a tablet
    release agent used to coat the inside of tablet moulds, or a spray
    used to allow bread to be released from baking tins or trays. There
    are, however, anomalous instances. For example, if an anti-caking
    agent is added to a powder ingredient to facilitate its flow
    properties while being conveyed to a mixer, where it is incorporated
    into a liquid product or a dough for baking, the anti-caking agent is
    used solely as a processing aid, and hence need not be declared. If
    however, that powder ingredient is directly packed into containers
    for sale as such, or is incorporated in a dry mix product, the
    anti-caking agent is not acting solely as a processing aid and must
    be declared as an additive.

Pure

         This word is used as a marketing term, and is usually applied to
    a single ingredient with no additions, e.g. pure vegetable oil, pure
    orange juice, whether in the form of a single ingredients food or
    when used as a major ingredient of a compound food.

Quality

         When applied meaningfully to the character of a food, 'quality'
    may refer to (a) the degree or standard of excellence; or (b) the
    fitness for purpose; or (c) the consistency of attainment of the
    specified properties of the food. In the context of food control, it
    is meaning (c) that applies.

         The term is sometimes used in a meaningless marketing sense
    (e.g. 'X is a quality product').

Raw

         In the earliest or primary state, after harvesting or slaughter,
    not having been subjected to any treatment apart from cleaning, size
    grading or size reduction, (e.g. diced raw vegetables, raw minced
    beef).

         Some ingredients termed 'raw materials' may actually be 'raw'.
    Often, however, one manufacturer's starting materials are other
    manufacturers' finished products; and a more accurate description
    would be 'starting materials'.

Real

         A marketing term, used normally to emphasise the presence of an
    authentic ingredient in a product, as distinct from a substitute
    (e.g. biscuits with a real chocolate coating).

         See also Genuine.

Re-formed

         'Re-formed' meat is an artefact having the appearance of a cut,
    joint, slice or portion of meat, formed by combining pieces of meat
    which have undergone processes generally including tumbling or
    massaging or specific alignment of fibres, with or without the
    addition of finely comminuted meat and/or meat emulsion, and then
    forming in moulds or into shapes. Codes of Practice exist for the
    labelling of cured meat products and quick frozen meat products
    respectively, made from re-formed meats.

Reduced .....

         Complying either with a declared or, where existing,
    legally-specified percentage reduction compared with a product not
    making a ""reduced" claim, for the parameter involved.

Restore

         See Fortified (foods).

Rich in .....

         See High in .....

Selected

         Primarily a marketing term, implying superior quality. It should
    not be used unless it can be substantiated that the product quality
    has been enhanced by an actual selection process.

Sensory

         Relating to the use of the sense organs. (Note the distinction
    from 'organoleptic' 'relating to an attribute of a product
    perceptible by the sense organs')..

         BS 5098 (identical with ISO 5492: 1992) entitled 'Sensory
    Analysis Vocabulary' provides an extensive and authoritative set of
    definitions of terms relating to sensory analysis.

Snack

         A small quantity of food, eaten informally between, or in place
    of, main meals.

Snackfood (Snack food)

         A convenient food item specifically manufactured for use as a
    snack.

Spoilage

         Any perceivable change undergone by a food, through any cause,
    that renders it unwholesome or unacceptable for use. Spoilage is
    usually the result of enzyme or microbial action resulting, for
    example, in lipolytic rancidity, putrefaction, fermentation, or mould
    growth; but food can also spoil by other means, for example overlong
    storage, non-enzymic browning, or exposure to air or light. In
    practice the term is most frequently applied to categorising such
    deteriorative changes (other than food infection or intoxication)
    when caused by microorganisms.

Steak

         'Steak' has, in the past, been taken to mean a cut or thick
    slice from the beef animal. However, a judgement in the Court of
    Appeal in 1986 allowed a re-formed product to be called 'Chicken
    Breast Steaks Flaked and Formed Chicken in a Crispy Crumb' on the
    grounds that the description of the product, as a whole, was clear,
    accurate and not misleading. This judgement, therefore, means that
    'steak' can be used, provided that it is properly qualified, as a
    generic term, probably in relation to any animal, bird or fish
    normally used for human consumption, and whether or not the meat has
    been re-formed.

Traditional

         One way of defining 'traditional' in relation to foods and food
    processes is to say it is the opposite of 'new' or 'modern' (cf. the
    FAC's use of 'traditional' with the intention to exclude novel foods,
    see 'natural', above). It can also be applied to a particular
    characteristic of a food; for example 'traditional flavour', 'made in
    the traditional way'. This leaves unresolved, however, the question
    "at what point does yesterday's 'new' or 'modern' become today's
    'traditional'?". One suspects that for each generation, 'traditional'
    means anything up to and including the foods and methods of one's
    early youth! For some, 'traditional' appears to mean rule-of-thumb
    craft-based rather than based on science/technology.

Unadulterated

         A food material containing no additions or contaminants foreign
    to the normal product which otherwise would debase it or confer or
    disguise inferior quality.

Wholefood

         Any food which contains all its naturally occurring components,
    (e.g. pulses, raw vegetables) and without the addition of other
    substances. A wholefood can be a mixture of wholefoods.

Wholesomeness

         'Wholesomeness' is a convenient single term which embodies a
    large number of aspects and attributes of a food. In summary, a
    wholesome food is one that satisfactorily meets the expectations of
    the segment of consumers at which it is aimed; and that has been made,
    stored and handled in compliance with any relevant legislative
    standards and with all of the principles of good manufacturing
    practice.

         Full consideration of these characteristics is given in IFST
    Professional Conduct Guideline 'Wholesomeness of Food'. This relates
    to a clause in the Code of Professional Conduct, requiring each
    member "to take legitimate steps through proper channels to ensure
    (or assist in ensuring) the wholesomeness of any food with which he
    or she is concerned".

MARKETING TERMS

         When used in the labelling, advertising or description of a food,
    the main (and sometimes total) role of the terms listed under this
    heading is to promote the sale of the product rather than provide
    necessary information to the purchaser. Terms often falling into this
    category include 'health food', 'designer food', 'functional food',
    'improved', 'natural', 'new', 'pure', 'quality', 'selected',
    'traditional'.

         Food scientists and technologists who are in a position to
    advise on product labelling, advertising or promotional material
    should do their best to ensure that such terms are not used in ways
    that could mislead (see IFST Professional Guideline No 6 'Scientific
    Issues and Food Promotion').

*******************************************************************************

END OF FILE 2/3
CONTINUED ON FILE 3/3

---

From: [email-masked] (Paul E. J. King)
Date: 27 Jul 1996 11:58:03 GMT

Archive-Name: sci/food-science-faq/part3

RE-POST: FAQ Section 3/3 - SCI.BIO.FOOD-SCIENCE Frequently-Asked Questions

See the first section (1/3) of this FAQ for any preliminary and 
introductory remarks. See this section also for a list of food science related
sites and abbreviations.

For a list of definitions of industry, marketing, and scientific terms in food
science, see section 2/3 of the FAQ.

V. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

         Here are brief answers, compiled by the Institute of Food
    Science & Technology, to some of the most frequently asked questions
    about food science and technology topics. Food scientists and
    technologists will appreciate that, because they are brief, and
    because they are intentionally written so as to be comprehensible to
    enquiring non-scientists readers of the newsgroup, they will not
    adequately fulfil the requirements of a scientist looking for a full
    "textbook" account.

         The Institute of Food Science & Technology (IFST) is the
    independent non-profit professional qualifying body for food
    scientist and technologists, a UK-based body with international
    interests. Its home page on the World Wide Web is at
    http://www.easynet.co.uk/ifst/

KEY DEFINITIONS

Food science --

         is a coherent and systematic body of knowledge and understanding
    of the nature and composition of food materials, and their behaviour
    under the various conditions to which they may be subject.

Food technology --

         is the application of food science to the practical treatment of
    food materials so as to convert them into food products of the kind,
    quality and stability, and so packaged and distributed, as to meet
    the needs of consumers for safe, wholesome nutritious and attractive
    foods.

                                *****
    
         Thus, food science integrates the application to food of several
    contributory sciences. It involves knowledge of the chemical
    composition of food materials (for all food consists entirely of
    chemical substances); their physical, biological and biochemical
    behaviour; human nutritional requirements and the nutritional factors
    in food materials; the nature and behaviour of enzymes; the
    microbiology of foods; the interaction of food components with each
    other, with atmospheric oxygen, with additives and contaminants, and
    with packaging materials; pharmacology and toxicology of food
    materials, additives and contaminants; the effects of various
    manufacturing operations, processes and storage conditions; and the
    use of statistics for designing experimental work and evaluating the
    results.

         Likewise, food technology draws on, and integrates the
    application to food of, other technologies such as those of steel,
    tinplate, glass, aluminium, plastics, engineering, instrumentation,
    electronics, agriculture and biotechnology.

FAQ GROUPINGS

         In the interests of "user-friendliness" the FAQ is written so
    that, as far as possible each answer is self-contained. This of
    necessity results in some repetition of material in the answers to
    related question For convenience, the FAQs are in four Groups as
    follows:

         GROUP 1 FOOD AND NUTRITION
         GROUP 2 FOOD SAFETY 
         GROUP 3 ADDITIVES AND PACKAGING 
         GROUP 4 SCIENCE AND FOOD 

         The following is a summary of the questions, by the grouping 
    described above. The group answers can be found under headings of the 
    format: "ANSWERS TO GROUP [number] QUESTIONS - [group name]", excluding the 
    quotes and square brackets, and all capital letters. When the answer 
    to a question is given, the question and question number will be 
    repeated in the line above it.

GROUP 1 -- FOOD AND NUTRITION
    1.What is good/bad food? 
    2.What is a good diet?
    3.Do I need to worry about getting enough protein?
    4.Is sugar harmful?
    5.Isn't honey healthier than sugar?
    6.Why is sugar used in foods?
    7.Is salt harmful?
    8.Why is salt used in foods?
    9.Are fats harmful?
    10.What about different types of fat?
    11.Should we cut out all fats?
    12.What is a hydrogenated vegetable oil?
    13.What are trans fatty acids?
    14.Is margarine better for us than butter?
    15.Aren't natural foods better for us than processed foods?
    16.Why are foods processed?
    17.Is a vegetarian diet better for us?
    18.Isn't it more expensive to eat a 'prudent' diet?
    19.Do we need more vitamins and minerals?
    20.Do organic foods taste better?
    21.What foods are good for arthritis?
    22.Is ginseng/royal jelly/pollen/lecithin/kelp good for me?
    23.What are 'junk foods'?

GROUP 2 -- FOOD SAFETY
    1.What is food poisoning?
    2.Why has food poisoning increased so much?
    3.Why all the fuss about food hygiene?
    4.Aren't  we  losing  natural  immunity by producing foods with no 
      pathogens present?
    5.How can food poisoning be prevented?
    6.What about irradiation of food?
    7.Isn't genetic modification a dangerous interference with nature?
    8.Doesn't  gene  transfer  from  one species to another create the
      risk of ethical problems or even cannibalism?
    9.Shouldn't  all  genetically  modified foods, or those containing
      genetically modified ingredients, be labelled as such, to warn
      consumers?
    10.With regard to BSE, is British beef safe to eat?

GROUP 3 -- ADDITIVES AND PACKAGING
    1.Why are food additives used?
    2.But aren't additives dangerous?
    3.Food colours are only cosmetic -- shouldn't they be banned?
    4.Why are foods packaged?
    5.What function does packaging perform?
    6.Do  we  really  need  the  protection  that packaging is said to
      provide?
    7.Is packaging wasteful of materials and energy?
    8.Can  packaging  and energy usage be reduced without compromising
      the protection it gives to the food?
    9.Why are there so many different types of packaging materials?
    10.Why are some packages difficult to open?
    11.What about recycling of packaging?
    12.What about returnable, refillable systems?
    13.Why does packaging contribute so much to household waste?
    14.Do packaging materials affect the food in them?

GROUP 4 -- SCIENCE AND FOOD
    1.What is food science? What is food technology?
    2.Wouldn't our food be even better without scientists and technologists 
      interfering with it?
    3.Why do scientific experts often disagree?
    4.Doesn't hindsight show that the experts always "got it wrong"?

ANSWERS TO GROUP 1 QUESTIONS - FOOD AND NUTRITION *****************************

1.What is good/bad food?

         In keeping with their Code of Professional Conduct, food
    technologists in industry take great care to ensure that food
    products are safe and wholesome. But eating or drinking too much of
    any food can be bad for you -- too much water can kill you. We
    shouldn't think of good foods or bad foods, but of good or bad diets.

2.What is a good diet?

         A good diet is a balanced one; lots of different foods and not
    too much of any one food. That way you get all the nutrients that you
    need. Many countries have guidelines for healthy diets, including in
    some cases recommended daily amounts of specific nutrients. However,
    it is emphasised that these are for healthy individuals, not for
    those with disease symptoms, food allergies, or intolerances. These
    people should consult a dietitian or physician.

3.Do I need to worry about getting enough protein?

         You will automatically get enough protein to stay healthy if you
    eat a varied diet and sufficient of the wide range of foods available
    to stop you feeling hungry.

4.Is sugar harmful?

         Not in itself. However, if you eat a lot of sugar in the form of
    sweets (candy), you may not eat enough of all the other foods needed
    to provide your body with the nourishment it needs. Sugar can cause
    dental decay if you eat sweets or drink sugar-sweetened drinks
    between meals. You need to clean your teeth afterwards in the
    conventional way or by eating a piece of cheese. Otherwise the sugar
    sticks to your teeth causing plaque and decay.

5.Isn't honey healthier than sugar?

         Not really. Honey is largely a strong solution of sugars called
    fructose and glucose, which affect teeth only very slightly less than
    ordinary sugar (sucrose). There is nothing specially healthy about
    honey. The traces of micronutrients it contains are too small to make
    any significant contribution to our diet.

6.Why is sugar used in foods?

         Sugar is used in some foods to make them sweet, in others in
    small quantities to enhance the flavour but not enough to make them
    sweet. In some foods, however, sugar is an essential part of the
    structure and recipe; for example in cakes or biscuits (cookies).

7.Is salt harmful?

         Salt is essential to a healthy diet. We need about 1 g of salt a
    day. However, many of us consume about 10 g a day, ten times as much
    as we really need. A single dose of ten times that amount could be
    fatal! There is evidence that, for some people, too much salt can be
    a contributory factor to high blood pressure. Just how much is 'too
    much' varies from person to person. Prudent advice would be to reduce
    consumption to around 5 g per day.

8.Why is salt used in foods?

         There is enough salt naturally present in food to satisfy our
    daily 1 g need. However, salt is sometimes added during processing or
    cooking of food, and is also often sprinkled on a meal by consumers
    to enhance and improve the taste and flavour. Bread, tomatoes, boiled
    eggs do not taste good enough for many people unless salt is added.
    It is also used to preserve some foods. Salt curing is one of the
    earliest known forms of food preservation.

9.Are fats harmful?

         As with everything else, but more importantly with fats, too
    much is harmful. Many common diseases such as heart disease are
    linked to high consumption of fats, more especially saturated fats --
    the type mostly found in animal fat.

10.What about different types of fat?

         Fats in foods, or, more correctly, their fatty acids, are of
    three main types, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated.

         Saturated fatty acids carry a full quota of hydrogen atoms in
    their chemical structure. This is the type that increases the amount
    of cholesterol in the blood and is considered a risk factor in heart
    disease; animal fats are the main source.

         When one pair of hydrogen atoms is missing, the fatty acids are
    termed monounsaturated. They do not raise blood cholesterol and may
    even be beneficial. The main sources are olive oil and rapeseed oil
    (used in some margarines and low fat spreads).

         When more than one pair of hydrogen atoms is missing, the fatty
    acids are termed polyunsaturated. They predominate in most vegetable
    oils. Most appear to have no effect on blood cholesterol levels but
    are useful if they replace saturates in the diet. However, those
    found in fatty fish and fish oils (termed omega-3 polyunsaturated)
    are considered to help to lower cholesterol and therefore to be
    beneficial.

11.Should we cut out all fats?

         No, because some fatty acids are essential, and we need a
    certain amount of fat in the diet to be able to absorb the
    fat-soluble vitamins. Compared with an average Western diet, a
    prudent diet would contain a reduced intake of total fat, and, within
    that, a lower proportion of saturated fat and a higher proportion of
    mono- and polyunsaturated fats.

12.What is a hydrogenated vegetable oil?

         Vegetable oils, as the name implies, are liquid at room
    temperature. To make them suitable for use in margarines and
    shortenings, they are hydrogenated, i.e. treated with hydrogen, to
    solidify them. The hydrogenation process makes them more saturated.

13.What are trans fatty acids?

         Unsaturated fatty acids in foods can exist in two
    differently-shaped forms, scientifically described as the cis and
    trans forms. Some trans fatty acids are naturally found in milk and
    butter. When oils are hydrogenated, the unsaturated fatty acids
    become partially-saturated though retaining a degree of unsaturation.
    In the course of this, these still partially-unsaturated fatty acids
    have, to some extent, become converted to the trans form. While some
    research suggests that trans fatty acids may be harmful, the evidence
    is somewhat conflicting. As yet there is no official guidance on the
    subject, other than that the amount currently consumed should not be
    increased.

14.Is margarine better for us than butter?

         There is no simple answer. Butter contains more saturated fatty
    acids than margarine, but less trans fatty acids than some
    margarines.

15.Aren't natural foods better for us than processed foods?

         Nearly everything we eat comes originally from a natural source,
    but much of it is processed to preserve it so that it keeps better
    (e.g. canned, frozen or chilled foods); or to make it easier to eat
    (like wholemeal bread, a highly processed food made from wheat); or
    to make it safer (like milk that is pasteurised).

         There is no simple answer to the question. In some instances
    processed food is better for us, for example because harmful
    substances naturally present have been removed or destroyed during
    processing, or because the food has been enriched with nutrients. In
    many instances there is no difference. It could be argued that, taken
    in isolation, an apple for dessert is better for you than a chunk of
    Black Forest Gateau covered in cream; but even in the healthiest diet,
    there is room for an occasional indulgence.

16.Why are foods processed?

         To make them palatable, edible, convenient and with suitable
    keeping properties, Processing also adds variety to the diet by
    making foods from combinations of ingredients, as cooks have done
    down the ages.

17.Is a vegetarian diet better for us?

         Not necessarily. Current nutritional advice, to eat less fat,
    more fibre, more fresh fruit and vegetables and more starchy foods,
    may indeed be easier to achieve with a vegetarian diet. However,
    animal foods provide a concentrated source of protein, vitamins and
    minerals. These nutrients can be obtained from a vegetarian diet, but,
    unless it is expertly-designed, there could be difficulties with
    protein quality and with some micro-nutrients, especially with
    calcium and vitamin B2 (riboflavin) if milk products are rejected.

         [Note: Whereas vegans are very well informed about problems of
    obtaining sufficient vitamin B12 in a vegan diet, and there are
    numerous yeast-based spreads and supplements for their use, no
    warning is given anywhere in vegetarian/vegan literature about
    vitamin B2. In a typical western diet, some 40 per cent of the
    vitamin B2 intake derives from milk products. Someone switching to a
    vegan or strict vegetarian diet that excludes milk products will not
    only lose a major source of calcium, but will (in most cases,
    unknowingly) lose that 40% of vitamin B2. That is why we rectify that
    information deficiency in this FAQ, so that the deficits can be made
    up from other sources].

         There is an increase in the number of people who are vegetarian;
    either because they are concerned about animal welfare, especially of
    farm animals, and do not wish to eat meat or animal products, or
    because they believe that there are health benefits in following a
    vegetarian diet. The Vegetarian Society provides a wealth of
    vegetarian nutrition information to help ensure the nutritional
    adequacy of such diets.

18.Isn't it more expensive to eat a 'prudent' diet?

         Eating more fruit and vegetables and less fat does at first
    sight cost more, and needs more careful selection of foods. On the
    other hand, if these 'prudent diet' foods are replacing prepared
    convenience foods and fatty-sugary desserts, there may actually be a
    cost-saving.

19.Do we need more vitamins and minerals?

         A balanced and varied diet -- not too much of anything -- will
    normally supply enough from a nutrition point of view. There may be
    problems for children, adolescents, the elderly, women during
    pregnancy and lactation, and people on slimming diets. These people
    would probably benefit from a vitamin and mineral supplement. There
    is also increasing evidence that certain vitamins (i.e. vitamins C
    and E) have additional beneficial properties as antioxidants.

20.Do organic foods taste better?

         Some people who favour organic foods for other reasons claim
    that they taste better; but there is so much flavour variation among
    different varieties, different degrees of ripeness or freshness or
    length of storage of the same fruit or vegetable, that it is very
    difficult for individuals to make true comparisons.

         Generally, when attempts have been made to carry out
    scientifically-designed blind tasting tests on the same variety,
    organic versus non-organic, taste panels have been unable to detect a
    flavour difference.

21.What foods are good for arthritis?

         No individual foods will positively help disorders of this kind,
    although there is some evidence that a diet low in saturated fats and
    high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (particularly the omega-3
    polyunsaturated fatty acids) could benefit sufferers. Although there
    are various anecdotal claims about benefit from avoiding certain
    foods, there is little or no scientific evidence to support them.

22.Is ginseng/royal jelly/pollen/lecithin/kelp good for me?

         No convincing scientific evidence has so far been forthcoming to
    substantiate claims for any of these supplements.

23.What are 'junk foods'?

         This term has no specific meaning. It is an invented label which
    some people have applied to foods of which they disapprove. It has,
    for example, been applied indiscriminately to all fast food and all
    snack foods. It has also been applied to any food high in fat and/or
    sugar (and so in calories) but low in other nutrients. However, there
    is no evidence that such foodsare other than acceptable as part of a
    balanced diet.

ANSWERS TO GROUP 2 QESTIONS - FOOD SAFETY *************************************

1.What is food poisoning?

         Food poisoning is illness caused by any harmful amount of a
    natural or contaminating substance in a food, but especially illness
    caused by some highly infective kinds of bacteria. If not prevented
    -- as it can be by care and good hygiene -- some kinds of bacteria
    can grow to large numbers in food and produce toxins (poisons) some
    of which are difficult to destroy by cooking. Other kinds can cause
    illness by growing to large numbers in the digestive system. Symptoms
    include abdominal pain, diarrhoea and vomiting, and may last from a
    few hours to a few days. In extreme cases food poisoning can prove
    fatal, especially to babies, the elderly and others with weakened
    immune systems.

2.Why has food poisoning increased so much?

         Food scientists and technologists in industry take great care to
    try to ensure that food products are safe and wholesome. It is
    probable that increased food poisoning statistics are due to a
    combination of the following factors:-

         1) increased public awareness, so that large numbers of
    previously unreported 'stomach upsets' are now increasingly reported
    as cases of food poisoning;

         2) changing lifestyles, including changed shopping habits --
    shopping less frequently in larger amounts and consequently storing
    food for longer periods;

         3) the increased marketing of chilled prepared dishes, which
    need shorter times between purchase and consumption and more
    carefully controlled low temperature domestic storage than many
    people have understood or provided;

         4) the emergence of some hitherto unknown or new strains of
    micro-organisms.

3.Why all the fuss about food hygiene?

         It is a fact of life that food is threatened by dangerous
    microbes at every stage from farm to the table. So food safety calls
    for many measures and great care at every stage or the food chain.
    Leave a single loophole anywhere, and all the other efforts may be in
    vain. So there are two overriding needs in the manufacture of safe
    and wholesome foods; the first, in every food operation, knowledge of
    what the law requires and of how to set up a sound method of handling
    and an effective quality and safety control system; and the second,
    knowledge and practice of food hygiene by everyone who handles or
    takes decisions about handling, food, whether in factories,
    distribution, retail, catering (foodservice) or in the home.

         In addition to training of adults in food businesses, therefore,
    many consumers need to learn a lot more about food hygiene, and
    tomorrow's adults now at school should be taught food hygiene so that
    it becomes second nature to them.

4.Aren't we losing natural immunity by producing foods with no pathogens 
  present?

         That fear is groundless. The opposite view, that all food should
    be completely sterile, is totally unrealistic. Bacteria are around us
    all the time .There is no way that food can be made sterile, except
    by putting it in an hermetically-sealed container (e.g. a can) and
    treating it with a defined heat process to sterilise it; and even
    then, once the can is opened, the food is exposed to the atmosphere
    and contamination by airborne microorganisms. But when food is
    consumed, it is not the presence of microorganisms that is of
    concern. Danger only comes if they are allowed to multiply to large
    numbers in food or in the digestive system. This is preventable by
    taking great care and ensuring good hygiene at all stages of raw
    material handling, manufacture, distribution, retailing, catering
    (foodservice) and in the home.

5.How can food poisoning be prevented?

         There is no single answer. It needs a combination of measures
    and safeguards all the along the food chain from farm to table. See
    the answer to FAQ 3 "Why all the fuss about food hygiene?"

6.What about irradiation of food?

         Irradiation is a comparatively new method, one method among many,
    of safe food preservation. It is, however, the only method (apart
    from ultra-high pressure) of pasteurising without use of heat, and
    can therefore be valuable in a limited number of cases; for example,
    soft fruits and prawns, where quality is retained better than in heat
    pasteurisation. It is a controversial technique but, despite media
    scare stories, tests show that it is a safe and reliable process.
    Whether, and to what extent, it will be used for any particular food
    in a country will depend on governmental approval, economics and
    public acceptance

         As irradiated foods come on the market, so long as there is a
    continuing public demand for unirradiated versions they will
    obviously continue to be marketed alongside the irradiated versions.
    But where the quality and safety of the irradiated products prove
    superior, and the economics are viable, concerns will in time
    disappear. This is exactly what happened a few generations ago when
    similar concerns were expressed about permitting pasteurisation of
    milk; yet today people happily and safely drink pasteurised milk. No
    doubt the same will occur with acceptance of irradiated foods in the
    future.

7.Isn't genetic modification a dangerous interference with nature?

         Genetic modification has been used for countless years and
    applies to all the food we eat. Traditional breeding methods to
    improve animals and plants are genetic modification by slow,
    hit-and-miss means. Science now enables it to be done systematically
    and more rapidly. What is different, and could not be done by
    traditional breeding, is the purposeful copying of genes from one
    species to another.

         Professional food scientists are concerned to serve the public
    interest by furthering the application of science and technology to
    all aspects of the supply of safe, wholesome, nutritious and
    attractive food, nationally and internationally. The newer kinds of
    genetic modification can provide immense benefits in human well-being
    world-wide, especially in medicine, agriculture and food. Yes, like
    every bit of mankind's progress from being a cave-dweller, it is a
    form of interference with nature. Of course any new technology has
    potential hazards. If these frightened mankind off all new
    technologies we would still be living in the Stone Age. The answer is
    for scientific effort to be made to foresee hazards and eliminate
    them, for example, to avoid the risk of loss of genetic diversity.
    That is why, for example, the introduction of any new
    genetically-modified food is controlled in the UK in accordance with
    the stringent assessment and recommendations of the UK Advisory
    Committee on Novel Foods and Processes.

8.Doesn't  gene  transfer  from  one  species to another create the risk of 
  ethical problems or even cannibalism?

         The officially appointed UK Committee on the Ethics of Genetic
    Modification and Food Use, chaired by the Rev. John Polkinghorne,
    carried out a wide public consultation and issued a report in
    September 1993 on all of the moral and ethical issues involved. This
    was accepted by the UK Government and welcomed by IFST. The Committee
    found that the concerns were misconceptions rather than of real
    substance, arising from lack of knowledge, outside the scientific
    community, of just what was involved.

         The fact is that any gene extracted from one species for copying
    into another, is not itself inserted but is copied in the laboratory
    and diluted millions of times before a single gene is transferred.
    The chance that the original gene would be found are much less than
    the chance of recovering a particular drop of water from all the
    oceans of the world. If this were widely understood fears of
    cannibalism or of contravening religious food taboos would be seen to
    be unwarranted. Unfortunately, this fact does not make good media
    copy, whereas sensational "cannibalism" scare stories do.

         The Polkinghorne Committee's conclusions were:

         a. genetic modification of food and medicines is here to stay.
    It is not something to be stopped, and it would not be ethically
    right or necessary that it should be;

         b. there is no reason for any ban on the use of copy genes of
    human origin or from animals subject to dietary restrictions, but
    scientists working in this field should be discouraged from using
    such genes where alternatives would be equally effective;

         c. products containing such copy genes should be labelled to
    enabled consumers to make informed choices;

         d. government and industry should look for ways of explaining
    genetic modification to the general public.

9.Shouldn't all genetically modified foods, or those containing genetically
  modified ingredients, be labelled as such, to warn consumers?

         There are two distinct kinds of genetic modification. The first
    is as old as the hills, and applies to all the food we eat.
    Traditional breeding methods of improvement are genetic modification
    by slow, hit-and-miss means. Science now enables it to be done
    systematically and more rapidly. That kind of modification needs no
    special label indication -- otherwise it would have to be given on
    virtually all foods.

         The second kind, which could not be done by traditional breeding,
    is copying genes from one species to another. If some consumers wish,
    for whatever reason, to avoid purchasing products of this second
    kind, if the copy genes remain present in the food product, that
    information should be given on the label.

         This dual approach was adopted in the recommendations of the UK
    Food Advisory Committee, accepted by the UK Government and welcomed
    by IFST.

10.With regard to BSE, is British beef safe to eat?

         BSE is an extremely serious disease of cattle, the eradication
    of which is of primary importance to safeguard herds, and hence
    future supply of dairy and bovine meat products for the human and pet
    food chains, together with important bovine by-products.

         For there to be any risk to humans consuming beef, two
    conditions would both have to be fulfilled: (1) that BSE could be
    transmitted from cows to humans; and (2) that parts of the animal
    capable of carrying the infective agent could enter the human food
    chain.

         As to the first, there is no direct scientific evidence that BSE
    can be transmitted from cows to humans, and some research evidence
    suggesting that it cannot. Nevertheless, the emergence during the
    past two years of ten anomalous cases of Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
    (CJD) in a previously unrecognised pattern, led, in the absence of
    other explanation at present, to the conjecture that they were likely
    to have been caused by exposure to infected cattle brain or spinal
    cord before 1989 (at which time they were banned from the food chain)
    and to a judgement that, if there is any risk to humans, it is
    extremely small, and no greater for children, hospital patients,
    pregnant women or people who are immuno-compromised.

         As to the second, muscle meat and milk have been shown to be
    incapable of carrying the infective agent, and measures have been
    taken, and strengthened, to exclude from the food chain certain parts
    of the animal, including all those parts shown to be capable of
    carrying the infective agent. These measures require the most
    stringent enforcement and heavy penalties for evasion.

         Having regard to the present scientific evidence, therefore, and
    provided that the above measures are fully implemented, muscle meat
    of British beef and British milk and milk products would appear to be
    without risk of causing CJD.

ANSWERS TO GROUP 3 QUESTIONS - ADDITIVES AND PACKAGING *************************

1.Why are food additives used?

         Many foods depend on additives for safety, stability or
    preservation. Preservatives inhibit growth of microbes that cause
    food poisoning. Ham and bacon would be highly dangerous without the
    preservative that also gives them their characteristic colour.
    Freedom from separation, or a smooth creamy texture depends on
    emulsifiers. Without other kinds of additives many foods would look
    less pleasant, or taste less pleasant, or go off more quickly, or
    cost more.

2.But aren't additives dangerous?

         All additives in the UK and Europe are controlled by law, and
    only those are permitted that have undergone stringent tests for need
    and for safety in use, and have been been found satisfactory by
    independent committees of scientists and medical experts. A similar
    situation applies in most other countries. Some people are allergic
    to, or intolerant of, particular additives; many more are allergic to,
    or intolerant of, substances naturally present in foods, such as
    strawberries, fish, nuts, etc.

3.Food colours are only cosmetic -- shouldn't they be banned?

         Part of the enjoyment and appeal of food is its appearance,
    including its colour. Homemakers, cooks and chefs have always used
    colours in cooking to enhance appearance or to compensate for colour
    deterioration during cooking. The same applies to some manufactured
    foods. For example without colour margarines appear grey and
    unpalatable; with colour they are visually attractive and popular.
    The colours used are only those that have been tested and found
    satisfactory by the same stringent procedures as those for additives
    in general. Colour judiciously used adds to the enjoyment of food.
    Would you want to return to only black-and-white on TV or on your
    computer screen?

4.Why are foods packaged?

         Foods are packaged to protect them and keep them in good
    condition while they are delivered to stores, stacked on shelves or
    stored at home.

5.What function does packaging perform?

         The primary packaging of the food contains it; preserves it and
    protects it from contamination or damage; carries the identification
    and description of the contents; provides visible evidence as to
    whether the package has been tampered with; and reduces household
    waste by providing only the edible part of foods.

         The outer packaging (e.g. paperboard cartons) is an essential
    means of transporting to retail stores large quantities of the packs
    for stacking on shop shelves.

6.Do we really need the protection that packaging is said to provide?

         Yes. Food safety absolutely requires it. Moreover, a World
    Health Organisation study has indicated that in developed countries
    with sophisticated storage, packaging and distribution systems
    wastage of food is estimated at only 2-3%. In developing countries
    without these systems wastage is estimated at between 30% and 50%

7.Is packaging wasteful of materials and energy?

         Of course the production of anything, including packaging
    materials, uses raw materials and energy. However, both packaging
    material manufacturers and food manufacturers operate in an intensely
    competitive environment, causing continual search for ways to
    minimise packaging costs without compromising the protection or
    presentation of the product.

         Packaging also reduces the amount of material entering the waste
    stream. Most packaged fresh and processed foods have had the
    non-edible material (e.g. husks, peels, vegetable tops, bones of
    animal or fish, etc) removed during preparation. As a result, those
    materials are used for animal feed or other purposes instead of going
    into domestic waste. Likewise, energy is saved by not having to
    transport that inedible material through the distribution and retail
    chain to the consumer.

8.Can  packaging  and  energy  usage  be  reduced  without compromising the
  protection it gives to the food?

         Here are four examples

         In 1970, the weight of a metal can for baked beans was 68.9 g.
    In 1990 the same size can weighed 56.6 g.

         In 1950, a glass milk bottle weighed 397 g. In 1990, the same
    size bottle weighed 245g.

         In 1983 a 1.5 litre PET plastic soft drinks bottle weighed 66 g.
    In 1990, the weight has been reduced to 42 g.

         In 1950 a tinplate beer can weighed 91 g. In 1990 an aluminium
    beer can weighed only 17 g, and was fully recoverable for recycling.

9.Why are there so many different types of packaging materials?

         Most food products can be packed in a variety of alternative
    ways. Manufacturers choose the most appropriate type of packaging for
    a product, depending on the nature and requirements of the product,
    the degree and nature of protection needed, the method of
    distribution, the shelf-life and the environmental impact.

10.Why are some packages difficult to open?

         the design of a package is inevitably a compromise between, on
    the one hand, the essential protection of the contents, in some cases
    requiring extra robustness or an airtight seal, and on the other hand,
    easy and convenient use, including ease of opening. A really
    well-designed pack is one that strikes an effective balance between
    these two requirements. While there are some packs that are more
    difficult to open than others, when an occasional pack is encountered
    that is virtually impossible to open, it is usually the result of a
    temporary maladjustment of a packaging machine (for example, forming
    much too tight threading of a metal cap on a bottle) rather than a
    design fault. Manufacturers are increasingly having their attention
    drawn to the special 'openability' problems encountered by customers
    with physical disabilities, and efforts to improve matters in this
    direction will benefit all users

11.What about recycling of packaging?

         The '3 R's' of current environmental packaging law and practice
    are Reduce, Re-use and Re-cycle. These are the main ways of
    minimising municipal waste disposal. As far as re-cycling of food
    packaging is concerned is concerned, the major materials have to be
    considered and dealt with separately.

         Glass, tinplate and aluminium, when recovered by re-cycling, can
    give similar performance to that provided by the virgin materials.
    Re-cycling all three reduces overall energy usage (particularly with
    aluminium). Re-cycling schemes are now in operation for the recovery
    of both tinplate and aluminium containers. Glass containers (eg. milk
    bottles) if sound can be returned and re-used; but broken glass
    ('cullet') is returned to the glassworks for re-cycling. Paper and
    paperboard can be recovered and re-cycled for newsprint, tissues, and
    some grades of paperboard.

         Various plastic materials present a variety of recovery and
    re-cycling problems. About half of all consumer goods are packaged in
    plastic of one kind or another, yet, because of the lightweight
    character of plastic packaging, it represents only 15% by weight. Its
    light weight is of course economical of materials and energy for
    transport of goods packed in plastic. Most individual plastic
    packages (without counting the weight of contents) weigh less than 10
    g, and some of these are contaminated with food residues such as
    yogurt, fats, cream and similar products. The light weight makes it
    more difficult to collect and transport for re-cycling. Lightweight
    films, bags, pouches, etc made of plastics or plastics/paper
    laminates are probably better incinerated to recover energy.

12.What about returnable, refillable systems?

         There are several requirements for a re-fillable system to work.
    Consumers must be made aware of which containers are returnable; the
    operation is local, centred around each filling plant with a radius
    of about 50-80 kilometers; the transport system for delivery and
    returns is preferably controlled by the filling plant; the cost of
    returning the empty container and of washing and handling it, must
    not exceed the cost of a single-trip container; the containers must
    be suitable for return by the consumer via conveniently sited bottle
    banks.

13.Why does packaging contribute so much to household waste?

         It is only when the package is emptied and needs to be disposed
    of that we notice it. People are seldom aware of the role of the
    packaging in protecting the product in distribution and until it is
    opened for use.

         A UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution found that
    total packaging (not just food packaging) contributes 1% of the total
    of all solid wastes. Total household waste contributes only 4% of all
    solid wastes.

         A study of waste by the US Chamber of Commerce indicated that
    the relationship between food waste and packaging waste was clear; as
    packaging use (and subsequent disposal as waste) increases, food
    wastage decreases.

14.Do packaging materials affect the food in them?

         The packaging material has both to preserve the food and to
    protect it from deterioration, outside contamination or damage during
    distribution and storage; and the packaging material in direct
    contact with a food must not itself harm, or be harmed by, the food.
    The packaging material for a particular food must therefore be
    carefully selected with these considerations in mind. Most countries
    have developed strict controls, based on extensive testing, for the
    use of "food contact" materials; and these help to ensure that a
    correct choice is made.

ANSWERS TO GROUP 4 QUESTIONS - SCIENCE AND FOOD *******************************

1.What is food science? What is food technology?

         *Note. The answers given are the same as the KEY DEFINITIONS
    given at the beginning of this section, but are repeated here for
    convenience

    Food science --

         is a coherent and systematic body of knowledge and understanding
    of the nature and composition of food materials, and their behaviour
    under the various conditions to which they may be subject.

    Food technology --

         is the application of food science to the practical treatment of
    food materials so as to convert them into food products of the kind,
    quality and stability, and so packaged and distributed, as to meet
    the needs of consumers for safe, wholesome nutritious and attractive
    foods.

         Thus, food science integrates the application to food of several
    contributory sciences. It involves knowledge of the chemical
    composition of food materials (for all food consists entirely of
    chemical substances); their physical, biological and biochemical
    behaviour; human nutritional requirements and the nutritional factors
    in food materials; the nature and behaviour of enzymes; the
    microbiology of foods; the interaction of food components with each
    other, with atmospheric oxygen, with additives and contaminants, and
    with packaging materials; pharmacology and toxicology of food
    materials, additives and contaminants; the effects of various
    manufacturing operations, processes and storage conditions; and the
    use of statistics for designing experimental work and evaluating the
    results.

         Likewise, food technology draws on, and integrates the
    application to food of, other technologies such as those of steel,
    tinplate, glass, aluminium, plastics, engineering, instrumentation,
    electronics, agriculture and biotechnology.

2.Wouldn't  our  food  be  even better without scientists and technologists
  interfering with it?

         No. It is the scientists and technologists, working in
    universities and research establishments, in industry, as consultants
    to industry, and in enforcement and government agencies, who extend
    the frontiers of knowledge about the properties and behaviour of food;
    apply increasing knowledge to the development of the present (and
    future) wide variety of safe and attractive foods; design and operate
    quality assurance systems to ensure that quality and safety are
    maintained during the manufacture, distribution and retailing of
    foods; operate surveillance systems to ensure that legal, quality and
    safety requirements are being met.

3.Why do scientific experts often disagree?

         Personal opinions vary in every walk of life, but scientists
    disagree far less than the media suggest. However, at the 'cutting
    edge' of scientific research, there can be genuine disagreements on
    the validity or interpretation of available information and on how
    new research findings may affect previous interpretations. Scientists
    are accustomed to debating these matters, and it is in the course of
    thrashing out these differences and highlighting gaps of knowledge
    where further research is needed, that scientific knowledge advances.
    It requires objective judgement, without, on the one hand, undue
    zealotry or, on the other hand, defence at all costs of entrenched
    positions of past orthodoxy.

4.Doesn't hindsight show that the experts always "got it wrong"?

         No. Hindsight shows that the experts nearly always "got it
    right". It's simply that we only notice the rare instances where they
    did get it wrong. And in those instances, we have to ask why.
    Sometimes the scientists were in fact right, but human error occurred
    in applying that knowledge. Sometimes it was that the knowledge
    available at that time was insufficient. Scientists are not
    magicians. Twenty years ago they knew only a fraction of what we know
    now; which in turn is only a small fraction of what we will know in a
    few years time. Research brings new knowledge all the time and at an
    accelerating rate.

         However, our profession is the repository of existing knowledge
    in the field of food science and technology, and includes the
    researchers expanding the boundaries of that knowledge and the
    experts applying it for a safe, wholesome, nutritious and attractive
    food supply for the public benefit.

********************** END OF FAQ *****************************************

---

From: [email-masked] (Paul E. J. King)
Date: 27 Jul 1996 11:58:01 GMT

Archive-Name: sci/food-science-faq/part1

Posting-Frequency: weekly
Last-modified: 1996/05/04

IMPORTANT: The "Additions and Changes" section has been moved to a separate
file. Please look in the newsgroups for a post with the subject line: 

 [sci.bio.food-science] Additions and Changes to FAQ, and New User Info

This had to be done because this part of the FAQ was getting to be too long.
This posting is also important to new subscribers to the group, since, aside
>from  reporting additions and changes, it lists where the FAQ can be FTP'ed from,
where you can view a live HTML copy of our FAQ on the web, and other important
bits of info. This will become the last post in a sequence of 4. In the RTFM
archives, the file is called "diff". See the FTP informations in the newuser
info section for the new downloading information.

 -- Paul King

FAQ - SCI.BIO.FOOD.SCIENCE Frequently-Asked Questions (1 of 3)

On behalf of Rachel Zemser and Ralph Blanchfield, I welcome you to 
sci.bio.food-science.

You are all encouraged to contact one of us if you have suggestions 
additions, or other 'major' questions we haven't thought of. Our names and 
email addresses are:

Rachel Zemser, creator of the newsgroup sci.bio.food-science 
    <mailto://[email-masked]>
 
J Ralph Blanchfield, Food Science, Food Technology & Food Law
    Consultant, Chair, IFST Member Relations & Services Committee and Web
    Editor, IFST Web on the WWW <mailto://[email-masked]>

Paul King, Creator and Maintainer of the List of Common Abbreviations 
    <mailto://[email-masked]>

For a glossary of scientific, marketing, industry, technical and legal terms of
relevance to food science, see FAQ 2 of 3. For a list of common questions and
answers about food and food science, see FAQ 3 of 3.

 - Paul King

FAQ  1/3- SCI.BIO.FOOD-SCIENCE Frequently-Asked Questions
*******************************************************************************
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

The following documents have been brought to you by:

Rachel  Zemser,  creator of the newsgroup sci.bio.food-science
    <mailto://[email-masked]>

J  Ralph Blanchfield, 
    Food Science, Food Technology & Food  Law Consultant, Chair, IFST 
    Member Relations & Services Committee and Web Editor, IFST Web on 
    the WWW <mailto://[email-masked]>

Paul King, Creator and Maintainer of the List of Common
    Abbreviations <mailto://[email-masked]>

    This document has been created to answer questions about Food
Science and the newsgroup sci.bio.food-science. This  document
contains five Parts, formatted in three Files.

FILE 1/3
         I.   Guidelines for posting in sci.bio.food-science
         II.  A list of Food Science related Web Sites
         III. A list of common abbreviations

FILE 2/3
         IV.  Food  Science  Definitions and Interpretations that have 
              been prepared  by  a  joint  working  group of the Institute 
              of Food Science and Technology (IFST) and the UK Association
              of Public Analysts (APA)

FILE 3/3
         V.  Frequently  Asked  Questions About Food Science and Technology
             that  have  been prepared by the Institute of Food Science &
             Technology (IFST), the professional qualifying body for food 
             scientists and technologists; a UK-based body with 
             international interests. 
             <WWW address http://www.easynet.co.uk/ifst/>

I. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR POSTING IN SCI.BIO.FOOD-SCIENCE

     The goals of this newsgroup are:

     1. To discuss topics and issues related to food chemistry,
food microbiology, food engineering/processing, food biotechnology,
dairy science, agriculture, fermentation, nutrition, toxicology,
agribusiness, sensory science, and food safety.

     2. To share experimental methods and improved teaching
techniques.

     3.  To announce job vacancies for food science and technology
professionals in all relevant fields.

     4. To provide an opportunity for food science and technology
professionals to post resumes of up to 500 words.

     5. To make available, and answer questions about, abstracts
of papers for publication or presentations.

     6. To announce professional meetings, conferences, courses,
events, etc.,  world wide

     7. To discuss general areas of interest inside food science
and technology.
 
     8.  Postings are welcome from food science and technology
professionals, as well as from any others seeking advice or
information on  these subjects. No posting may offer for sale or hire,
or request payment for, goods, services or information

     Please make sure that your post is related to the above goals
of  the newsgroup. There are lots of other food related newsgroups and
some of them may be better for your post. Some of these groups are:

    sci.med.nutrition,      rec.food.preserving,      rec.food.cooking,
    rec.food.recipes,       alt.food.wine,            alt.food.fat-free, 
    rec.food-veg,           rec.food.veg.cooking,     alt.support.diet

II. A LIST OF FOOD SCIENCE RELATED WEB SITES

         The following is a list of food science related web sites. Some
    of these may be of interest to food scientists reading this group.

         This list has been created in an effort to bring food scientists
    closer together on the internet. If you find a site that is not
    mentioned in this list please email [email-masked]

1.ACADEMIC SITES -

         There are many food science/edu web pages. This list does not
    include every one. However, from these sites, one can link to many
    more food science/academic related sites. This list will be updated
    on a regular basis. Though the list is alphebetized, the words 
    'University' or 'University of' are ignored.

         In addition, the web sites are sorted by country, as far as 1)
    the available information, and 2) the country code of the web site
    will allow. This is in light of the fact that the number of websites
    suggested by our subscribers have grown considerably over the past
    while, and some logical ordering is necessary. If your mailer, news 
    reader or text viewer can do a case-sensitive string search, you will 
    find that the spellings of the countries are capitalised.

                               AUSTRAILIA
Queensland University:         <http://www.uq.oz.au/fst/>

                                 AUSTRIA
Graz University of Technol, Div of Fd Chem:  <http://www.cis.tu-graz.ac.at/ilct>

                                 CANADA
Acadia University:             <http://ace.acadiau.ca/science/nutr/home.html>
University of Alberta:         <http://www.afns.ualberta.ca/>
University of Guelph:          <http://www.foodsci.uoguelph.ca>
University of Manitoba:       <http://umanitoba.ca/agruculture/agriculture/html>
Memorial University of Newfoundland (MUN) Aquaculture program(Marine Institute):
                               <http://www.ifmt.nf.ca/mi/aqua/aqua.html>
MUN Marine Technology program (Marine Institute):
                               <http://www.ifmt.nf.ca/mi/ftu/ftu.html>
MUN Food Safety Program:       <http://www.ifmt.nf.ca/new_prog/adfs.html>
MUN Food Technology Program:   <http://www.ifmt.nf.ca/new_prog/adft.html>
Technical University of Nova Scotia:           <http://www.tuns.ca:80/foodsci/>

                                 DENMARK
Royal Vetarinary and Agricultural University:      <http://www.foodsci.kvl.dk/>

                                 FINLAND
University of Helsinki:        <http://honeybee.helsinki.fi/MMETT/MMETT.HTM>

                                 GERMANY
University of Hohenheim:  <http://www.uni-hohenheim.de/~ltserv/engl-index.html>

                                  ITALY
Bologna University (Italian; English pages under construction):
                               <http://metal.foodsci.unibo.it/>
Department of FS, Tech., and Microb. of the University of Milan (Italy):
(Italian)         <http://www.unimi.it/ateneo/strutt/dipart/distam/distam.html>

                                 JAMAICA
West Indies University (Under construction): 
                   <http://wwwchem.uwimona.edu.jm:1104/lab_manuals/chmAlab.html>

                        THE NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND)
Wageningen Agricultural University:
                               <http://www.spb.wau.nl/lmt/>

                                  SPAIN
Spanish Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology
                               <http://www.iata.csic.es/>

                                  SWEDEN
Lund University (Nutrition and Food Chemistry):        <http://www.kc.lu.se/inl>
Lund University (Food Engineering): <http://www.livstek.lth.se/info/livstek.htm>

                                SWITZERLAND
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (Zurich): 
                                    <http://www.agrl.ethz.ch/D-AGRL/Dept_en.htm>

                              UNITED KINGDOM
University of Huddersfield:    <http://www.hud.ac.uk>
University of Leeds:           <http://www.leeds.ac.uk/food.htm>
Manchester Metropolitan University:   <http://www.doc.mmu.ac.uk>
University of Nottingham:      <http://www.nott.ac.uk>
Oxford Brookes University:     <http://www.brookes.ac.uk>
University of Strathclyde: 
                      <http://www.strath.ac.uk/Departments/BioSci/bbindex.html>
University of Surrey:          <http://www.surrey.ac.uk>
York University:      <http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/biol/web/applied/bfhome.htm>

                              UNITED STATES
Arizona University:            <http://ag.arizona.edu:80/NSC/>
University of California at Davis Dept. of FS and Technology:
                               <http://www-foodsci.ucdavis.edu>
University of California at Davis - R. Paul Singh's Food Engineering course:
                            <http://nachos.engr.ucdavis.edu/~rpsingh/index.html>
University of California at Davis - Seafood Network Information Centre:
                               <http://www-seafood.ucdavis.edu/>
University of Colorado Agricultural List:    
                     <http://wwwmbb.cs.colorado.edu/~mcbryan/bb/66/summary.html>
Cornell University:            <http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/cifs/>
University of Delaware:    
                  <gopher://bluehen.ags.udel.edu:70/hh/.fosc/.recruit/fosc.html>
University of Florida:      <http://gnv.ifas.ufl.edu/www/agator/htm/foodsci.htm>
University of Houston:         <http://5230.hilton.uh.edu>
University of Illinois:        <http://w3.ag.uiuc.edu/FoodSci/FoodSci.html>
IFT Student Association:       <http://fscn1.fsci.umn.edu/iftsa/iftsa.htm>
Kansas State University:       <http://www.dce.ksu.edu/dce/c11food.html>
University of Kentucky:  <http://www.uky.edu/Agriculture/FoodScience/links.html>
University of Minnesota:       <http://fscn1.umn.edu/pages.htm>
Mississippi State University:        <http://www.msstate.edu/Dept/FST/Homepage/>
Mississippi State University College of Agriculture and Home Economics:
                               <http://www.abe.msstate.edu/cahe/cahe.html>
National Agricultural Library: <http://www.nalusda.gov/homepage.html>
Oklahoma State Animal Sciences (Livestock):       <http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/>
Ohio State University:         <http://www-fst.ag.ohio-state.edu/>
Oregon State University:       <http://www.orst.edu/food-resource/food.html>
Purdue University:             <http://www.foodsci.purdue.edu>
University of Reading:         <http://www.reading.ac.uk/AcaDepts/af/home.html>
Rutgers University:            <http://fs4.rutgers.edu/>
Texas A&M FS and Engineering:  <http://ifse.tamu.edu/ifsehome.html>
Texas A&M Meat Science:        <http://savell-j.tamu.edu/jeff.html>
University of Wisconsin:       <http://uwrf.edu/food-science/welcome.html>
Virginia Tech:                 <http://www.vt.edu:10021/cals/foodsci/>
Washington State University:   <http://av.fshn.wsu.edu/>
Wayne State University:        <http://gallus.tamu.edu/nutr/nutr.html>

2.GENERAL WEB SITES RELATING TO FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY:

         ACCESSING THIS FAQ THRU THE WEB VIA DEJANEWS.COM OR
    WWW.LIB.OX.AC.UK: By entering the complete name of this newsgroup on
    a web search form at DejaNews <http://dejanews.com/>, you may access
    all past postings in this (or any) newsgroup. The listings of the
    postings will be in reverse chronological order. Where you see the su
    bject line of this FAQ, follow that link, and the result is a copy of
    our FAQ, but with a differnce: All of the web links mentioned in FAQ
    1/1 become LIVE web links. Thus, if you access this FAQ posting via
    DejaNews, all of the links mentioned below becom e live links which
    can be followed to academic, commercial, or government sites
    worldwide. The same is true on any other posting where a user may
    make a passing mention of a web site.

         Better still, Peter Sahlin <[email-masked]> reported
    finding a html'ed copy of our FAQ through
    http://www.jazzie.com/ii/internet/faqs.html. It's exact location is
    at

    <http://www.lib.ox.ac.uk/internet/news/faq/sci.bio.food-science.html>. 

    It is better than DejaNews in that the FAQ is in the three parts that
    we had intended; you need not press any icons for the next screenful
    of text; and any mentioned links are still live, meaning you can use
    their copy of our FAQ on Netscape to jump to an y site on the
    internet that we have listed. This service is provided to us via the
    University of Oxford. DejaNews can still be useful to look at past
    postings.

         This list will also be updated from time to time.

Agriculture and Agri-Food:     <http://aceis.agr.ca/agmaine.html>
American Association of Cereal Chemists:        <http://wwwnt.scisoc.org/aacc/>
ASEAN Fisheries Post-Harvest Technology Information Network, Singapore:
                               <http://www.asean.fishnet.gov.sg>
Beer:                          <http://www.mindspring.com/~jlock/wwwbeer.html>
Beer:                          <http://www.mindspring.com/~jlock/rfdbeer.html>
Org. of Nutritional Education (Canada) (for educators and science journalists):
                               <http://www.hpb.ca:8080:8080/one>
Center For Disease Control:    <http://www.cdc.gov/>
Code of Federal Regulations:   <http://www.pls.com:8001/his/cfr.html>
Codex Alimentarus (FAO):
                  <gopher://Gopher.FAO.ORG/11gopher_root%3A%5Bfao.codex.t0ff%5D>
Consumer Information Center:   <http://www.gsa.gov/staff/pa/cic/cic.htm>
David Mackinnon's list of FS sites:     
                               <http://www.upei.ca/~dkmackin/food.html>
Deja News Website:             <http://dejanews.com>
Ed Blonz's FS site list:       <http://www.blonz.com/blonz>
FDA:                           <http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/index.html>
FDA Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition:
                               <http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/index.html>
Federal Trade Commission (USA):<http://www.ftc.gov>
Food and Nutrition Information Center(FNIC):  
                               <http://www.nalusda.gov/fnic.html>
Food Chemical News Homepage:   <http://crcpress.com/fcn/titlepg.htm>
"Food Dude" browser (USA):     <http://www.fooddude.com/>
Food Law Page:                 <http://fscn1.fsci.umn.edu/FoodLaw/FoodLaw.html>
Foodnet (Canada):              <http://foodnet.fic.ca/>
Functional Foods For Health:   <http://www.ag.uiuc.edu/~ffh/ffh.html>
Garden State Labs HACCP Page:  <http://www.planet.net/gsl/haccp.html>
Health inspector home page:
            <http://www.homeless.com/homepages/[email-masked]>
Health Inspector(Fd and Water Safety)  <http://www.tripod.com/~ae858/index.html>
IFIC Foundation:               <http://ificinfo.health.org/homepage.htm>
INFOODS, UN University Food and Nutrition Programme:
                               <http://www.crop.cri.nz/crop/infoods.html>
Institute of Food Research:
                            <http://www.infrn.bbsrc.ac.uk/Information/IFR.html>
Institute of Food Science & Technology (IFST): 
                               <http://www.easynet.co.uk/ifst/>
Institute of Food Technologists (IFT):  
                               <http://www.ift.org>
International Food Information Council: 
                               <http://www.inicinfo.org/>
Internet Resources for FS & Technology CSIRO, Australia:
                               <http://www.dfst.csiro.au/fdnet20a.htm>
Leatherhead Food Research Association: 
                               <http://www.lrfa.co.uk/lfra>
Maize genome project:          <http://teosinte.argon.missouri.edu>
Morbidity & Mortality Reports: <http://www.crawford.com/cdc/mmwr/mmwr.html>
National Food Safety Database: <http://www.agen.ufl.edu/~foodsaf/foodsaf.html>
NCAHF Home Page:               <http://www.primenet.com/~ncahf/>
New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research:     <http://www.crop.cri.nz/>
sci.bio.food-science FAQ on HTML:
           <http://www.lib.ox.ac.uk/internet/news/faq/sci.bio.food-science.html>
Soybeans:                      <http://mendel.argon.iastate.edu>
University of Western Sydney (Hawkesbury):
                             <http://www.hawkesbury.uws.edu.au/~geoffs/paul.htm>
USDA Home Page:                <http://www.usda.gov/>
USDA Food and Nutrition Information Center:

                               <gopher://gopher.nalusda.gov:70/11/infocntr/fnic>
USDA Food Composition Tables:
       <http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/TopicgrEnv/USDA/USDAFoodCompositionData>
USDA Nutrient Values of Foods: <http://www.fatfree.com/usda/usda.cgi>
Veggies Unite!:             <http://www.honors.indiana.edu/~veggie/recipes.cgi/>
Wine:                          <http://www.ee.pdx.edu/~timt/html/wine.html>

3.FOOD COMPANIES

Campbell Soup Company:         <http://www.campbellsoups.com/Welcome1.html>
Dole 5 A Day                   <http://www.dole5aday.com/>
Frito-Lay                      <http://www.fritolay.com>
Gerber Baby food:              <http://www.gerber.com/>
Hershey:                       <http://www.hersheys.com/~hershey/welcome.html>
Kellogs:                       <http://www.kelloggs.com/>
Mars' M&Ms Homepage            <http://www.baking.m-ms.com>
McCormick and Co.              <http://www.McCormick.com>
Monsanto:                      <http://www.monsanto.com>
Nabisco:                       <http://www.nabisco.com/>
Quaker Oats:                   <http://www.quaker-oats.com/>
The Snack food Association:    <http://www.usii.net/sfa/>
NutraSweet:                    <http://www.nutrasweet.com/>

 * If anyone knows of any other web sites, email:
                                            <mailto://[email-masked]>

4. FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY RELATED MAILING LISTS-

         BEEF-L: A mailing list and discussion group for beef specialists
    in university, government and commercial activities.
                                           <mailto://[email-masked]>

         CANWINE: is an unmoderated mail discussion group formed to look
    at the whole spectrum of Canadian wines and the Canadian wine
    industry. To subscribe to CANWINE, send the message (no subject
    line): subscribe canwine to:            <mailto://[email-masked]>

         DNH-PILOT The Diet, Nutrition and Health project mailing list
    covers sociology, food science and technology, agricultural economics
    and psychology. Researchers in academic institutions across the
    European Union, hopefully together with industrial partners and with
    some external funding, are involved. To subscribe send email to:
                                    <mailto://[email-masked]>

         FDMKTNEWS-MG Once a month you get a short summary of prices and
    availability of foods in the US. Sometimes, comments on new
    regulations, etc. Send email to: [email-masked], with the
    message: subscribe fdmktmews-mg Food-for-thought ] This list is
    primarily intended as a forum for discussions on all aspects of food
    and eating across different disciplines. The list also provides a
    bulletin board for notices of meetings, employment opportunities, new
    publications etc.                         <mailto://[email-masked]>

         FISH: To subscribe to the Fish Mailing List, send email to
    <mailto://[email-masked]> with one of the following
    commands in the body of the message. You may leave the subject line
    blank. To subscribe to the Fish Mailing List enter "subscribe fish"
    (excl using quotes) in the body of your email to them. For a list of
    other commands and subscription options enter: "help" in the body of
    your email. If your mailer adds a signature, then you need to include
    the word "end" at the last line of your message body . Commands in
    the Subject line are NOT processed.  <mailto://[email-masked]>

         FOOD-COMP: This is a list dealing with food composition and data:
    Subscription (handled manually) <mailto://[email-masked]>
    Articles:                               <mailto://[email-masked]>

         FOODENG A list for discussion and announcements on food engineering  
    topics and events. 
    Subscription (automatic):                    <mailto://[email-masked]>
    with the body of message reading only: "SUBSCRIBE FOODENG yourname". 
    Articles:                                     <mailto://[email-masked]>

         FOOD-FOR-THOUGHT is a forum for discussion on all aspects of
    food, and a bulletin board for relevant announcements. Send articles to:
                                      <mailto://[email-masked]>
    Subscription (automatic):                 <mailto://[email-masked]>
    with the body of message containing only: "JOIN FOOD_FOR-THOUGHT yourname"

         FOOD-LAW : to discuss latest developments in food law and
    regulatory issues and to share course outlines and curricula. The subscribe 
    instructions are: "send the comand: "subscribe food-law <your name>" as the

    only text of an e-mail message to 
                                   <mailto://listserv@[email-masked]>
    Articles:                               <mailto://[email-masked]>

         FOODLINK This is a mailing list and discussion group for food
    safety specialists in city, county and other settings. Food safety
    alerts are posted to this list when appropriate. The subscribe instructions 
    are: send the comand: "subscribe foodlink yourname" as the only text of an 
    e-mail message" to                      <mailto://[email-masked]>
    Articles:                               <mailto://[email-masked]>

         FOODWINE Designed to facilitate discussion among those seriously
    interested in the academic study of food and its accompaniments in
    the 1990's. Send a subscription request to:
                                        <mailto://[email-masked]>

         J-FOOD-L Discussion of Japanese food, exchange of recipes.
                         <mailto://[email-masked]>

         OZWINE Wines of Australia and New Zealand. To subscribe to
    OZWINE, please send the following command in the body of your email
    letter to                           <mailto://[email-masked]>
    With "subscribe ozwine <your name>" being the only text of your email.

         IFT : This is intended for IFT Food Science Communicators and
    other food scientists and technologists approved by the group. Its
    purpose is to permit very rapid dialogue on fast-breaking public and
    media issues affecting the food science and technology profession.
                                        <mailto://[email-masked]>

         FOODSCI. This is a closed list, restricted to academic food
    science administrators (department chairs, heads, deans or
    directors). Only they may subscribe (and hence receive e-mails), but
    anyone can post to it. It is intended to enable a single notice to be
    sent to them all simultaneously.<mailto://[email-masked]>

         FOOD & NUTRITION SPECIALISTS:      <mailto://[email-masked]>

         NUTRITIONAL EPIDEMIOLOGY:            <mailto://[email-masked]>

5. RECOMMENDED FOOD SCIENCE AND RELATED TEXTS
The purpose of this section is to provide information on recommended texts and
reference books which would be useful to both food scientists and non food
scientists. The people recommending these books are the subscribers to
sci.bio.food-science. I will accept corrections and new submissions on an
ongoing basis. 

The format of these entries are loosely based on the Journal of Food Science:
SUBJECT: Author(Year). Title. Edition. City:Publisher. ISBN. Comments.

Where you would normally see "food" as part of the "SUBJECT" field, as in "food
additives" or "food chemistry", the word "food" is dropped.

        ANALYSIS: Nielsen, S. Suzanne, ed. (1994). Introduction to the Chemical
        Analysis of Foods. 1st edition. Boston: Jones and Barlett.  ISBN
        0-86720-826-0.  This is an excellent introduction to the field, and a  
        good "refresher" even for more experienced food chemists.

        ANTIMICROBIALS:  Davidson, P.M. and Branen, A.L.(1993).  Antimicrobials 
        in Foods. 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-8906-7.

        ADDITIVES:  Branen, A.L., Davidson, P.M., and Salminen, S.(1990).
        Food Additives. New York: Marcel Dekker.  ISBN 0-8247-8046-9.

        BIOCHEMISTRY: Matthews and Van Holden (1995). Biochemistry. 2nd ed.

        Benjamin-Cummings. ISBN? Very good, very mechanistic general biochem 
        textbook.

        BIOCHEMISTRY: Stryer, Lubert (1995). Biochemistry. 4th ed.  Freeman (?).
        ISBN? Less mechanistic, but it's pretty much the standard in many   
        medical schools.

        CHEMISTRY: Belitz, H-D, and W Grosch(1987). Food Chemistry.     
        Heidleberg:Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-97373-7. Translated from German 
        by Dr D Hadziyev. Title in German: Lehrbuch der Lebensmittelchemie (2nd 
        edition).

        CHEMISTRY: Fennema, Owen, ed. (199?). Food Chemistry. New York: Marcel 
        Dekker. ISBN (Hard) 0-8247-7271-7; (Soft) 0-8247-7449-3. Pretty much the
        standard food chemistry textbook in Food Science departments in the 
        United States and Canada.

        MICROBIOLOGY: Frazier, W. C., and Dennis C. Westhoff(1988). Food
        Microbiology. 4th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-021921-4. 539 pp.
        Hardcover. 6 parts. Part1: Food and microbes. Part 2:Food Preservation. 
        Part 3:Contamination and spoilage. Part 4:Foods and Enzymes Produced by
        Microbes. Part 5:Foodborne disease. Part 6:Sanitation, control, and
        inspection.

        NUTRITION:  Newstrom, Harvey(1993).  The Nutrients Catalog.
        Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc.  ISBN:
        0-89950-784-0. Hardbound, 538 pages, 2&3 columns of 8-point type, 5
        appendices, index, $65.00. Monologs on 39 vitamins (subdivided into 185
        different chemicals), 43 minerals, 24 aminos, and 6 macronutrients.
        covering nutrient names, classifications, different chemical forms, 
        deficiency symptoms, side-effects, toxicity symptoms, inhibiting 
        factors, helping factors, food sources with measured content levels, +/-
        variance in content measurements, possible application uses, nutritional
        dosages, therapeutic dosages, experimental dosages, toxic dosages, 11
        different versions of the USRDA and related regulations, and special
        warnings.

        ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: Fessenden, R J, and J S Fessenden(1986). Organic 
        Chemistry. 3rd ed. Belmont, Calif: Wadsworth, Inc. ISBN: 0-534-05088-3.

        GENERAL REFERNCE: Budavari, Susan, ed.(1989). The Merck Index: An
        encyclopedia of chemicals, drugs, and biologicals. 11th Edition. Rahway,
        NJ: Merck & Co. ISBN: 911910-28-X. Contains extensive information on 
        just about every organic compound for which there is either a use for, 
        or a topic of scientific interest.

III. A LIST OF COMMON ABBREVIATIONS

         It is not expected that you know and use all of the
    abbreviations listed below. This list should be used as a reference
    in the event you come across abbreviations that confuse you, or can't
    remember. 

         They include names of organisations, scientific abbreviations,
    and common chemical symbols, derived largely from the Merck Index.

         References given in braces {}. Where {Stryer} appears, refer to 
    Lubert Stryer's _Biochemistry,_ 2nd Edition (Freeman). Where no reference  
    appears the shorthand is suggested by the author. For suggestions and 
    additions email to <[email-masked]>. For brevity all except the most 
    common organic compounds are left out. Also left out are most of the 
    units of measurement; both metric and Imperial. 

         Also not included on this list are the generic abbreviations for
    the Internet, such as BTW, IMHO, or RTFM. You can get those in
    newsgroups of the "news.*" hierarchy, notably news.answers,
    news.announce.newusers, and for further help on these and other
    matters having strictly to do with the internet, post your queries
    to: news.newusers.questions.

         ON SUPERSCRIPTS AND SUBSCRIPTS: There has been some concern in 
    the past on the matter of the transmission of superscripts and subscripts 
    over the Internet. Since we are all limited to the ASCII character set, one 
    cannot easily change typeface or fonts in a way that would be transmittable 
    in the bodies of email messages or news messages. A case in point is the
    variable which reports the "heat effect" or "sterilisation effect" of
    a thermal process, called F. F is usually reported in the context of
    two other variables, z (the change in temperature needed for a
    tenfold increase in the amount of bacterial spores killed), and T
    (the core temperature of the can). In normal circumstances, we would
    write F with z as the superscript and T as the subscript.
         If we followed the old conventions used in this FAQ for
    reporting F, we would have to write: F^z_T, which appears illegible. 
    Instead, we suggest a new convention which will make things clear for 
    everyone. Report your variable with your parameters "spelled out" in 
    parentheses. For example: F(z=10 degC; T=121.1 degC). Since the ASCII   
    character set also has no "degree" symbol, these have to be "spelled out" 
    as well. The abbreviation for "degrees Celsius" was taken from the list 
    below.

    ^          Exponent (as in 6.022x10^23, i^(-1/2), e^k)
    _          Subscript (as in E_p (potential energy)) 
    /          Fraction  (as  in  1/2);  as below to separate abbreviations 
               (as in UDP/UMP/UTP); per (as in km/h) 
    ~          Approximately equal to; proportional to 
    =          Equal to 
    !=         Not equal to {C++ programming convention} 
    ==         Equivalent {C++ programming convention} 
    !==        Not equivalent 
    >          Greater than 
    >>         Much greater than 
    <          Less than (the Pac Man always eats the larger value :-) 
    <<         Much smaller than 
    >=         Greater than or equal {programming convention} 
    <=         Less than or equal {programming convention} 
    +/-        Plus or minus (note the special use of the slash) 
    ||         Parallel 
    !          Factorial 
    @          At (as in "500g of lettuce @ $0.45/kilogram") 
    * or x     Multiplication 

    A          Adenine; Adenosine; absorbance (extinction) {Merck}; The 
               conjugate acid of an acid-base pair 
    Ac         Acetyl; Acetic {Merck} 
    AcOAc      Anhydrous Acetic Acid 
    AcOH       Acetic Acid {Merck} 
    AcOEt      Ethyl Acetate {Merck} 
    Acetyl CoA Acetyl coenzyme A 
    AcylSCoA   Acyl coenzyme A 
    ACS        American Chemical Society {Merck} 
    ADP        Adenosine diphosphate 
    AIFST      Australian Institute of Food Science & Technology 
    alc        Alcohol(ic); Ethanol; Ethyl Alcohol {Merck} 
    alk        Alkali(ne) 
    AMP        Adenosine Monophosphate 
    amt(s)     Amount(s) {Merck} 
    aq         aqueous 
    ATCC       American Type Culture Collection 
    atm        atmospheres; atmoshperic 
    ATP        Adenosine triphosphate 
    ATPase     Adenosine triphosphatase 
    AW         Atomic weight 
    Aw         Water activity 

    B          Asparagine or aspartic acid {Stryer}; The conjugate base of an 
               acid-base pair 
    BBSRC      Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (UK) 
    bp         Base pair; boiling point; boils; boils at; boiling 
               at <temp> {Merck} 
    BP         British Pharmacopeia {Merck} 
    BPC        British Pharmaceutical Codex {Merck} 
    BOD        Biochemical oxygen demand {Merck} 
    BSA        Bovine Serum Albumin 
    BSE        Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy 
    Btu        British thermal units 
    Bu         Butyl 

    cal        Calorie(s) 
    calc       Calculate(d) {Merck} 
    cAMP       Cyclic AMP 
    cc         Cubic centimeter (milliliter) 
    CDP        Cytidine 5'-diphosphate 
    cf         Compare (confer) {Merck} 
    cGMP       Cyclic GMP 
    CHO        Carbohydrate 
    CI         Color Index (British) {Merck} 
    Ci         Curie {Merck} 
    CIFST      Canadian Institute of Food Science & Technology 
    CMC        Carboxymethylcellulose {cf Merck: CM-cellulose} 
    CMP        Cytidine 5'-monophosphate 
    CNS        Central Nervous system 
    CoA/CoASH  Coenzyme A 
    Conc       Concentrated; Concentration {cf Merck: concn} 
    Cp         Heat capacity, constant pressure 
    CP         Chemically pure {Merck} 
    cpd        Compound; critical-point drying 
    CTP        Cytidine 5'-triphosphate 
    Cv         Heat capacity, constant volume 

    d          Density {Merck} 
    d-         dextrorotatory {Merck} 
    D12        12th Decimal Reduction 
    deg        Degree(s) 
    degC       Degrees Celcius 
    degF       Degrees Fahrenheit 
    degK       degrees Kelvin 
    degR       degrees Roentgen 
    deriv      Derivative 
    DFO        Department of Fisheries and Oceans (Canada) 
    dil        Dilute(d) {Merck} 
    DNA        Deoxyribonucleic acid 
    DNAase     Deoxyribonuclease 
    DMSO       Dimethylsulfoxide 
    dp         Degree of polymerisation 
    ds         Double stranded 

    E          Glutamic Acid {Stryer}; Exponent (as in 6.022 x 10E23) (see also 
               the entry for ^ )
    (E)-       Entgen (German for opposite) in naming cpds 
    ECSAFoST   East,  Central  and  Southern  African Federation  of  Food 
               Science & Technology 
    ed         Edition {Merck}; editor 
    eds        Editors {Merck}; editions 
    ED         Effective dose 
    EDTA       Ethylenediaminetetraacetic  acid. Also: Edathamil; Havidote; 
               Edetic acid; and Versene Acid. {Merck} 
    EFFST      European Federation for Food Science & Technology 
    eg         For example (exempli gratia) {Merck} 
    ELISA      Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay 
    EPA        Environmental Protection Agency (of the United States) 
    eq/eqn     Equation {Merck} 
    equilib    Equilibrium {Merck} 
    equiv      Equivalent 
    Et-        Ethyl 
    et al      And others (et alii) {Merck} 
    EtOH       Ethanol; Ethyl Alcohol 
    evap       Evaporated; evaporation {cf. Merck: evapn} 
    EU         European Union (was the European Common Market) 

    F          The Sterilisation Effect (see notes above on scripting)
    FAC        Food Advisory Committee (of the United Kingdom) 
    FAO        Food and Agriculture Organisation (of the United Nations) 
    FAQ        Frequently-asked question file (this file) 
    fd         Freeze-dried; Freeze-drying 
    FDA        Food and Drug Administration (of the US; also USFDA) 
    FD&C       The US Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act {Merck} 
    ff         Pages following (as in "see page 23, ff") 
    FIFSTA     Federation of Institutes of Food Science & Technology of ASEAN 
    fp         Freezing Point 
    FP         Flavoprotein 
    FS         Food Science 
    FT         Fourier Transform(ation) 

    G1P        Glucose phosphate 
    G3P        Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate 
    G6P        Glucose-6-phosphate 
    GABA       Gamma aminobutyric Acid 
    GC         Gas chromatography/ Gas Chromatograph 
    GDP        Guanosine-5'-Diphosphate 
    gi         Gastrointestinal (tract) 
    GlcA       Gluconic Acid {Merck} 
    GMP        Guanosine-5'-Monophosphate (guanylic acid) {Merck}; Good 
               Manufacturing Practice
    GTP        Guanosine-5'-Triphosphate 

    HACCP      Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point 
    HAZOP      Hazard and Operability Studies 
    Hb         Hemoglobin 
    HbCO       Carbon Monoxide Haemoglobin 
    HbO2       Oxyhaemoglobin 
    HDL        High-density lipoprotein 
    HPLC       High-Pressure (performance, power) Liquid Chromatography {Merck} 
    HSA        Human Serum Albumin 
    HWC        Health and Welfare Canada 

    IARC       International Agency for Research on Cancer {Merck} 
    ICC        Interstate Commerce Commission (USA) {Merck} 
    IDP        Inosine-5'-diphosphate {Merck} 
    ie         That is; that is to say (id est) {Merck} 
    IEF        Isoelectric Focusing {Merck} 
    IFIC       International Food Information Council
    IFSTI      Institute of Food Science & Technology of Ireland 
    IFST       Institute of Food Science and Technology 
    ig         Intragastric 
    IMP        Inosine-5'-monophosphate {Merck} 
    incl       Including {Merck}; included 
    inorg      Inorganic 
    insol      Insoluble 
    IR         Infra-red 
    ISO        Internal Organisation for Standardisation {Merck} 
    ISO 9000   An extension of GMP (which see) and TQM (which see), 
               expanded to an internationally recognised set of quality 
               control standards through improved documentation systems. 
    ITP        Inosine-5'-triphosphate {Merck} 
    IU         International Unit 
    IUC        International Union of Chemistry {Merck} 
    IUFoST     International Union of Food Science & Technology 
    IUPAC      International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 
    iv         Intravenous 

    J          Joule(s) 

    l-         levorotatory 
    LC         Lethal Concentration {Merck} 
    LC50       LC for 50% of animals tested 
    LD         Lethal Dose {Merck} 
    LD50       LD for 50% of animals tested 
    LDL        Low-Density lipoproteins 
    log        Common logarithm (Base 10) 
    logn       Base n logarithm, where n is a base number (as in log2) 
    loi        Limit of impurities {Merck} 
    ln         Natural logarithm 
    LPS        Lipopolysaccharide 

    MAC        Maximum  allowable  Concentration {Merck} 
    MAFF       Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food (of the UK) 
    max        Maximum; maxima {Merck} 
    Mb         Myoglobin 
    MbO2       Oxymyoglobin {Merck} 
    MCA        Manufacturing Chemists Association (USA) 
    mcg        Microgram 
    mCi        Millicurie 
    Me/Met     Methyl 
    MetOH/MeOH Methanol; methyl alcohol 
    mfg/mfr    Manufacture; manufacturing {Merck} 
    min        Minimum; minutes 
    MLD        Minimum lethal dose 
    MO         Microorganism; Molecular Orbital 
    MOA        Ministry of Agriculture (Canada) 
    MOEE       Ministry of Environment and Energy (Canada) 
    mp         Melting point 
    ms-        Meso (internally compensated) {Merck} 
    MS         Mass spectrometry 
    mw         Molecular weight 

    n          The Omega carbon (as in n-6 for "omega-6"); Avogandro's 
               number; number of moles (as in PV=nRT). 
    NAD+/NADH  Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced) 
    NADP/NADPH Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (reduced) 
    NBS        National Bureau of Standards (USA) 
    NCAHF      National Council Against Health Fraud (USA)
    NCTC       National Collection of Type Cultures (USA) 
    NDP/NMP/NTP N-5'-mono/di/triphosphate, where N is any nucleoside 
    ng         Nanogram 
    NIOSH      National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health {Merck} 
    nm         Nanometers 
    NMR        Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 
    NRDC       National Research Development Corporation (USA) {Merck} 
    NSAID      Non-Steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs {Merck} 
    NSC        National Service Center (USA) {Merck} 
    NSERC      National Science and Engineering Research Council (Canada) 
    NSF        National Science Foundation (USA) 
    NZIFST     New Zealand Institute of Food Science & Technology 

    o-         Ortho 
    O          Oxygen; denoting attachment to an oxygen atom {Merck} 
    OAA        Oxaloacetate 
    OD         Optical density 
    OSHA       Occupational Health and Safety Act (USA) {Merck} 
    OsM        Osmolar 

    p-         Para 
    Pa         Pascal 
    PABA       Para-Aminobenzoic Acid 
    PAGE       Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis 
    pH         The negative base-10 log of the H+ concentration 
    pK         The  negative base-10 logarithm of the equilibrium constant, 
               K, for the reaction in question. 
    ppb        Parts per billion 
    ppm        Parts per million 
    ppt        Precipitate(d)
    Pr         n-Propyl 

    Q          Glutamine {Stryer}; Coenzyme Q (ubiquinone) 
    QA         Quality Assurance 
    QC         Quality Control 
    qv         which see (quod vide) {Merck} 

    R          Arginine {Stryer}; Universal gas constant; alkyl group {Merck} 
    (R)-       Rectus (Right) (naming groups around a central carbon) {Merck} 
    RIST       Radioimmunosorbent test {Merck} 
    RNA        Ribonucleic acid 
    hnRNA      Heterogenous nuclear RNA 
    mRNA       Messenger RNA 
    nRNA       Nuclear RNA 
    rRNA       Ribosomal RNA 
    snRNA      Small Nuclear RNA 
    tRNA       Transfer (soluble) RNA 
    RNase      Ribonuclease 
    RNI        Recommended Nutrient Intakes for Canadians 
    RTECS      Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances 

    s-         symmetrical 
    S          Serine {Stryer}; Sulfur; denoting attachment to S 
    (S)-       Sinister (left) (Opposite of R) {Merck} 
    sc         Subcutaneous 
    SDS        Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate 
    sec        Seconds 
    sec-       Secondary; attachment to secondary carbon 
    sg/sp gr   Specific gravity 
    SI         International System of Units 
    sol        Soluble; solubility 
    ss         Single stranded 
    STP        Standard Temperature and Pressure 
    sym-       Symmetrical 

    T          Threonine {Stryer}; Temperature 
    T(1/2)     Half-life 
    TDP/TMP/TTP Thymidine di/mono/triphosphate {Merck} 
    TDT        Thermal death time (for MO's (which see)) 
    temp       Temperature 
    tert-      Tertiary; denoting attachment to tertiary carbon 
    Tris       tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane 
    TQM        Total-Quality Management 

    UDP/UMP/UTP Uridine di/mono/triphosphate 
    UKFFoST    UK Federation for Food Science and Technology 
    USD        United States Dispensatory {Merck} 
    USDA       United States Department of Agriculture {Merck} 
    USFDA      The United States Food and Drug Administration (also FDA) 
    USP        United States Pharmacopeia {Merck} 
    uv         Ultraviolet

    v          Volume; volt(s) 
    VLDL       Very Low-Density Lipoproteins 
    vol        Volume 
    vs         Versus
    v/v        % Volume in volume {Merck} 

    WHO        World Health Organisation (United Nations) 
    wt         weight 
    w/v        % Weight in volume {Merck} 
    w/w        % Weight in weight {Merck}

    Z          Glutamine or glutamic acid {Stryer}; Z-Value - the change in 
               temperature needed to change TDT by a factor of 10. 
    (Z)-       Zusammen (German for together) - or "Zame Zide" from my 
               organic chemistry days :-) {Merck}

***************************************************************************

END OF FILE 1/3
CONTINUED ON FILE 2/3

---

From: [email-masked] (Paul E. J. King)
Date: 27 Jul 1996 11:58:05 GMT

Archive-Name: sci/food-science-faq/diff

NEWS for June 16, 1996:

This is something that is neither an addition nor a change. I now have my own
personal web page, with most of the links mentioned in this FAQ. You will find
it a lot more user-friendly than the web pages offered at Oxford or by Deja
News. I won't be updating it as much as the FAQ, and it will not contain these
updates. I stress here that the entire FAQ is not on my home page - just the
links mentioned in it. Visit the site and tell me what you think! The web site
is at <http://cgi.idirect.com/index///pking.html> (the triple forward slash is
not a typo). The intent was to write a simple web page that was easy to move
around in. There are no major graphics, so it _should_ be a quick download.
Mileage may vary at your site, however ...

New web sites have been added:
	
Part 2, Section 1: ACADEMIC SITES:
                                     AUSTRIA
Graz University of Technol, Div of Fd Chem:  <http://www.cis.tu-graz.ac.at/ilct>

                                      CANADA
Memorial University of Newfoundland (MUN) Aquaculture program (Marine Inst.):

                                      ITALY
Department of FS, Tech., and Microb. of the University of Milan (Italy) (written
in Italian)        <http://www.unimi.it/ateneo/strutt/dipart/distam/distam.html>

                                  UNITED STATES
University of Kentucky:  <http://www.uky.edu/Agriculture/FoodScience/links.html>
Rutgers University:            <http://fs4.rutgers.edu>

Part 2, Section2: GENERAL WEB SITES RELATING TO FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY:

Part 2, Section 4: FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY RELATED MAILING LISTS

    the Subject line are NOT processed.
 __

That's it for the changes! Now on to New User Information. No need to read the
rest of this "NEWS" section unless you're new to the group. 
 __

                           INFORMATION FOR NEW USERS

This FAQ has been accepted to the *.answers newsgroups, and can be found in both
sci.answers and news.answers.

For those who prefer their FAQ by FTP, it can be found in four different
locations at rtfm.mit.edu:

<ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet-by-group/news.answers/sci/food-science-faq/>
<ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet-by-group/sci.answers/sci/food-science-faq/>
<ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet-by-hierarchy/news/answers/sci/food-science-faq/>
<ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet-by-hierarchy/sci/answers/sci/food-science-faq/>

Please email me at <mailto://[email-masked]> if there are any problems in
downloading. Like this posting, which has four parts, each directory contains
complete FAQs in four files, called part1, part2, part3, and diff. Each
directory should have an identical, up-to-date, and complete copy of this FAQ. 

rtfm.mit.edu is controlled by its maintainers (not us), and is updated
automatically as a result of our weekly emailing. In addition, the actual
posting of this FAQ to sci.bio.food-science is now a consequence of emailing to
rtfm as well. 

A SHORT NOTE ON FTP RETRIEVAL OF THIS FAQ (for PC/Windows users with SLIP):

If you find your web browser too slow on your system, a better way to FTP is by
use of freeware  like  WS-FTP. It can be downloaded via anonymous FTP from
<ftp://129.29.64.246/pub/msdos>. WS-FTP is free for private, household use. A
fee is required for commercial use. You may find the transfer on WS-FTP is much
faster, and that it uses far less memory. Also, WS-FTP allows you to maintain a
menu of your favourite FTP sites. This is not intended to be an endorsement of
WS-FTP.
 __

Professional food scientists, academics, and others involoved in the food
industry are invited to list their "favourite", or "most highly recommended"
textbooks in the food science field to be added to the FAQ for the benefit of
non-food scientists. The following format is preferred for ease of editing
(loosely based on the Journal of Food Science):

SUBJECT: Author(Year). Title. Edition. City: Publisher. ISBN. Comments.

The basic idea is to provide enough information for someone to walk into a
library or bookstore and order it. The ISBN number is essential. Comments are
optional.
 __

               "ETHNIC" FOOD PREPARATION METHODS ON THE WEB

Ralph, Rachel, and I have proposed a new sub-section dealing with an important
and as of yet overlooked aspect of foods: Ethnic (non-American and non-British)
food preparations. Specifically, we are looking for web pages dealing with
details on the preparation of foods that are described as "halal", "kosher",
"pareve", and so on - you fill in the terminologies for your ethnic group. How
are these foods prepared, inspected, and manufactured? What does the consumer
expect in terms of organoleptic properties and health benefits of such foods?
Are there any mass-produced foods that have the designation? How does a person
in that ethnic group know they are buying a food prepared according to their
ethnic or religious doctrines?

	If you know of any web pages that describe or even mention these things, please
send your suggestions to Paul King at <mailto://[email-masked]>
 ___

FOR PEOPLE WHO USE SLIP ON A WINDOWS-BASED PC (WinSock, seyon, Netscape, etc.):

Our FAQ has been converted to HTML for users of the World-Wide Web. It may be
found at two locations:

                                   or
                          <http://dejanews.com/> 

The first site is a direct link to our FAQ; the second requires you to fill out
a search form for the correct newsgroup, since DejaNews lists ALL news articles
posted on the Internet over several months. In both cases, the great thing about
seeing out FAQ on HTML is that all of the links we mention are LIVE links. That
is, if you have Netscape, you may point and click on our FAQ from any web site
we mention to wherever those links take you.
 __

 

 - Paul King