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Classen, Catherine C.; Palesh, Oxana Gronskaya; Aggarwal, Rashi (2005). SEXUAL REVICTIMIZATION: A Review of the Empirical Literature. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, Apr2005, Vol. 6 Issue 2, p103-129, 27p link

This article reviews the literature on sexual revictimization, covering approximately 90 empirical studies and includes a discussion of prevalence, risk factors, and correlates of sexual revictimization. Research suggests that two of three individuals who are sexually victimized will be revictimized. The occurrence of child- hood sexual abuse and its severity are the best documented and researched predictors of sexual revictimization. Multiple traumas, especially childhood physical abuse, and recency of sexual victimization are also associated with higher risk. There is preliminary evidence that membership in some ethnic groups or coming from a dysfunctional family places an individual at a greater risk. Revictimization is associated with higher distress and certain psychiatric disorders. People who were revictimized show difficulty in interpersonal relationships, coping, self-representations, and affect regulation and exhibit greater self-blame and shame. Existing research on prevention efforts and treatment is discussed. More longitudinal studies on sexual revictimization are needed.

 

 

Classen, Catherine C.; Palesh, Oxana Gronskaya; Aggarwal, Rashi. (2005). SEXUAL REVICTIMIZATION: A Review of the Empirical Literature. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 6 (2), p103-129, 27p

This article reviews the literature on sexual revictimization, covering approximately 90 empirical studies and includes a discussion of prevalence, risk factors, and correlates of sexual revictimization. Research suggests that two of three individuals who are sexually victimized will be revictimized. The occurrence of child- hood sexual abuse and its severity are the best documented and researched predictors of sexual revictimization. Multiple traumas, especially childhood physical abuse, and recency of sexual victimization are also associated with higher risk. There is preliminary evidence that membership in some ethnic groups or coming from a dysfunctional family places an individual at a greater risk. Revictimization is associated with higher distress and certain psychiatric disorders. People who were revictimized show difficulty in interpersonal relationships, coping, self-representations, and affect regulation and exhibit greater self-blame and shame. Existing research on prevention efforts and treatment is discussed. More longitudinal studies on sexual revictimization are needed.

 

 

Repeated sexual victimization

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.f...9&dopt=Citation

Sorenson SB, Siegel JM, Golding JM, Stein JA.

School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles.

Patterns of repeated victimization were investigated in a large community-based survey about sexual assault. Multiple victimization was common: of the 433 sexually assaulted respondents, two-thirds reported more than one incident; the average number of incidents per person was 3.2. Single- and multiple-incident victims of sexual assault did not differ on a wide range of variables including demographics, mental disorders, and general functioning (e.g., suicide attempts, family violence). Thus, once an initial victimization occurred, personal characteristics of the victim were not related to risk for subsequent sexual assault. Additional research which obtains more specific information on each event is needed to strengthen confidence in these findings. Considerations for research on multiple victimization are discussed. Further research may benefit from exploring contextual factors and using longitudinal research methods.

 

Cumulative trauma: the impact of child sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and spouse abuse.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/


J Trauma Stress. 1996 Jan;9(1):25-35.

Follette VM, Polusny MA, Bechtle AE, Naugle AE.

The present study investigated the relationship between trauma symptoms and a history of child sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and physical abuse by a partner as an adult. While there has been some research examining the correlation between individual victimization experiences and traumatic stress, the cumulative impact of multiple victimization experiences has not been addressed. Subjects were recruited from psychological clinics and community advocacy agencies. Additionally, a nonclinical undergraduate student sample was evaluated. The results of this study indicate not only that victimization and revictimization experiences are frequent, but also that the level of trauma specific symptoms are significantly related to the number of different types of reported victimization experiences. The research and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

 

Risk Factors for Violent Victimization of Women: A Prospective Study, Summary

http://www.ncjrs.gov/

Annotation: A secondary analysis of data from interviews with women with contemporaneously documented histories of child sexual abuse and with a matched comparison group of women with no documented abuse sought to determine whether women sexually abused as children are at increased risk or sexual abuse or victimization by domestic assault in later life.
Abstract: The analysis also considered the role of other potential risk factors. These factors included family background, sexual behavior, alcohol problems, and a woman’s own aggressive behavior. The participants were mainly low-income urban Black women. The research tested the study hypotheses using data from interviews conducted with 174 women during wave 3 of the study and from interviews of 80 women interviewed during both waves 2 and 3. Results revealed that the relationship between child sexual abuse and later adult victimization was complex. The simple fact of being sexually abused in childhood was not associated with a higher risk of either type of adult victimization studied. However, some women sexually abused in childhood were further sexually victimized in adolescence. These women had increased risk of revictimization as an adult. In addition, 48 percent of these double victims reported that their mothers had been arrested when the woman was a child or teenager. This rate was 6.8 times greater than that for the mothers of the women not abused as children. The analysis concluded that while a portion of the women sexually abused as children were at risk of revictimization throughout their lives, others were not and that researchers and practitioners need to learn more about the complex pathways that lead to resistance or vulnerability so that effective interventions can be appropriately targeted.

 

Analyzing Repeat Victimization

http://www.ncjrs.gov/


Annotation: After defining "repeat victimization" (RV) and its link to other patterns of public-safety problems, this guide indicates information sources and ways to determine the amount and characteristics of RV in a police agency's jurisdiction, followed by a review of responses to RV based on evaluations and police practice.
Abstract: According to most definitions, repeat victimization, or revictimization, occurs when the same type of crime incident is experienced by the same victim or target within a specific period of time, such as a year. Repeat victimization refers to the total number of offenses experienced by a victim or target, including the initial and subsequent offenses. The amount of RV is usually reported as the percentage of victims (persons or addresses) who are victimized more than once during a time period for a specific crime type. RV is substantial and accounts for a large percentage of all crime. This guide also discusses when, why, and where RV occurs, as well as how it relates to other crime patterns. Also discussed is the tendency of police agencies to overlook repeat victimization, as well as special concerns about repeat victimization. A section on understanding the RV pattern in a particular jurisdiction provides guidance in selecting the problem, selecting data, analyzing tasks, and planning further analysis. A section on responding to RV profiles types of responses to RV, including victim protection, shifting responsibility for RV, and increasing risks to offenders for RV. The guide concludes with suggestions for measuring the effectiveness of a response to RV. Appended information on data sources and limitations and improving data integrity, 42 notes, 34 references, and 18 annotated recommended readings

 

Revictimization: Reducing the Heat on Hot Victims

http://www.ncjrs.gov/


Annotation: Crime prevention through the identification of victims who repeatedly experience crime is examined, based primarily on data collected in the United Kingdom.
Abstract: Preventing crime in high-crime areas (hot spots) requires police to determine where and when crimes are likely to occur. The British data demonstrate why a focal point for effective crime prevention is the hot dot, or repeat victim. Two studies indicated that about 4 percent of surveyed victims experienced approximately 44 percent of the offenses. Results revealed that individuals' past crime victimization is a good predictor of their subsequent victimization, which is often inflicted by the same offenders. In addition, the greater the number of prior victimizations, the higher the likelihood that the victim will experience future crime. Moreover, revictimization tends to occur soon after the previous victimization. Furthermore, repeat victimization is highest in areas of highest crime. Findings indicate that a police officer's visit to a crime victim can usefully be directed at preventing the next possible crime as well as addressing the current one. One municipality reduced residential burglaries by 24 percent as the result of victim-focused crime prevention efforts. Therefore, the repeat-victimization approach would be explored as a useful component of crime prevention strategy. 6 reference notes and list of related NIJ publications and research.

 

Repeat and Multiple Victimizations: The Role of Individual and Contextual Factors

http://www.ncjrs.gov/


Annotation: This research used hierarchical modeling to examine the relative contributions of factors related to the victim and the offense context, with attention to the interaction of these factors in models of both repeat victimization (more than one of the same type of crime) and multiple victimization (two or more different types of crime).
Abstract: Research which shows that both repeat and multiple victimizations tend to be clustered among a few individuals and in a few places does not address the larger question about why some individuals or households are at greater risk than others. In attempting to answer this question, research and theory have focused on the characteristics of the places where these individuals are likely to be and on those individuals' demographic and lifestyle characteristics. Rather than consider only the additive effects of individual-level and place-level factors, it is necessary to determine how crime opportunity factors might operate differently depending on the particular neighborhood context. The current study applied this multi-level approach and the measures used by Rountree et al. (1994) to models for repeat and multiple victimization. The study also used the same victimization survey data from Seattle that Rountree et al. used, because it was one of the few available data sets that had both a large sample size (residents from 300 Seattle neighborhoods) and contextual information. Using telephone survey data from the multi-stage sample of Seattle residents, the research estimated separate hierarchical models for repeat property victimizations, repeat violent victimizations, and multiple victimizations. The results indicated that repeat victimization of both types varied substantially by neighborhood; whereas, multiple victimization was apparently determined more by individual-level factors. This report draws implications for social disorganization theory, routine activity/lifestyle exposure theory, and future work on repeat victimization. 3 tables and 27 references

 

Hot Dots in Hot Spots: Examining Repeat Victimization for Residential Burglary in Three Cities, Final Report

http://www.ncjrs.gov/


Annotation: This study documented the incidence, concentration, and time course of repeat victimization for residential burglary in the cities of Baltimore, MD; Dallas, TX; and San Diego, CA, from 1997 to 1999.
Abstract: This report first summarizes the literature on repeat victimization, primarily from Great Britain over the last decade. The current study compared the incidence of repeat victimization both citywide and in high-crime areas, the time course for repeat victimization, and the relative impact of a police problem-solving strategy on the incidence of repeat victimization in an experimental area in each of the three cities. A primary objective of the study was to develop a practical method of measuring repeat victimization by using police offense data. The specific address of the burglary offense was used as the unit of analysis, such that the dwelling was defined as the victim rather than the residents themselves. An examination of police offense records in the three cities showed that repeat victimization for residential burglary was substantial, constituting 11.6 percent of reported residential burglaries in single-family dwellings in Baltimore, 10.4 percent in Dallas, and 3.8 percent in San Diego. Repeat burglaries accounted for 15 percent of reported residential burglaries in single-family dwellings in the highest crime areas of Baltimore, 11 percent in Dallas, and 6 percent in San Diego. Repeat victimization in multi-family dwellings in all three cities was substantially higher than in single-family dwellings. Once burglarized, a single-family household in San Diego was about four times more likely to be burglarized again and three times more likely in Baltimore and Dallas. For multi-family dwellings in San Diego, the increased risk for repeat victimization was six times, 19 times as likely in Baltimore, and 28 times as likely in Dallas. Although police problem-solving efforts differed among the three cities, they generally consisted of advising victims about the likelihood of being victimized again within a short time period, providing information on preventing a recurrence, and informing immediate neighbors of the importance of informal surveillance. Reported residential burglaries declined in the experimental areas relative to the comparison areas in Baltimore and San Diego, but offenses increased in Dallas. Further examination of conditions associated with differing burglaries might have contributed to the development of different, more specific, and more effective police responses. The authors advise that these selections of crime and data types constitute a preliminary examination of repeat victimization in the United States, and the findings point to the need for additional research on repeat victimization. Directions for future research are suggested. Still, the current research has shown that the identification and understanding of repeat victimization has great promise for aiding the police in identifying crime patterns and delivering services more effectively to both prevent and reduce targeted crime. 32 tables, 25 figures, 111 references, and appended supplementary data and the Dallas victimization survey

 

Analyzing Repeat Victimization

http://www.ncjrs.gov/


Annotation: After defining "repeat victimization" (RV) and its link to other patterns of public-safety problems, this guide indicates information sources and ways to determine the amount and characteristics of RV in a police agency's jurisdiction, followed by a review of responses to RV based on evaluations and police practice.
Abstract: According to most definitions, repeat victimization, or revictimization, occurs when the same type of crime incident is experienced by the same victim or target within a specific period of time, such as a year. Repeat victimization refers to the total number of offenses experienced by a victim or target, including the initial and subsequent offenses. The amount of RV is usually reported as the percentage of victims (persons or addresses) who are victimized more than once during a time period for a specific crime type. RV is substantial and accounts for a large percentage of all crime. This guide also discusses when, why, and where RV occurs, as well as how it relates to other crime patterns. Also discussed is the tendency of police agencies to overlook repeat victimization, as well as special concerns about repeat victimization. A section on understanding the RV pattern in a particular jurisdiction provides guidance in selecting the problem, selecting data, analyzing tasks, and planning further analysis. A section on responding to RV profiles types of responses to RV, including victim protection, shifting responsibility for RV, and increasing risks to offenders for RV. The guide concludes with suggestions for measuring the effectiveness of a response to RV. Appended information on data sources and limitations and improving data integrity, 42 notes, 34 references, and 18 annotated recommended readings

 

Investigating Repeated Victimization With the NCVS, Executive Summary

http://www.ncjrs.gov/


Annotation: This is the executive summary of a study that examined both repeated burglary victimization and repeated assault victimization with data from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS).
Abstract: The study attempted to confirm both the assumption that prior burglary victimization was the best predictor of subsequent burglary and that the findings on repeated assaults held true for the broader population of repeated assault victims. The NCVS was selected as the source for data analysis because of its distinctive advantages in exploring repeat victimization. The NCVS collects data at 6-month intervals over as much as a 3-year period. The survey also has repeated measurement of independent or predictor variables, so as to permit the assessment of the effects of change in various attributes on the risk of victimization. Further, the NCVS introduced a procedure in 1992 to collect information on high-volume repeated victimization reported in the survey. The analysis of repeated burglary victimization examined the risk of burglary in housing units over a 3-year period. The victimization experience of persons in these units was assessed at 6-month intervals. The analysis confirmed that prior burglary victimization was positively related to subsequent burglary victimization, but other attributes of housing units and their occupants were much stronger predictors of burglary risk than prior burglary victimization. Regarding assault, the fact that repeat assaults are prevalent in schools, intimate relationships, and work, the study focused on these domains. The study concludes that the understanding of repeat assault would benefit from a more systematic questioning of victims about the inter-relationship among events and repeated events. Currently, the NCVS asks about the relationship of events only for very high-volume repeat victimizations. 21 references

 

Criminal Victimization During One's Life Course: The Effects of Previous Victimization and Patterns of Routine Activities

http://jrc.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/37/1/91

Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 37, No. 1, 91-122 (2000) Karin Wittebrood

This study focuses on the effects of previous victimization and patterns of routine activities on the risk of falling victim to seven types of crime: sexual offense, assault, threat, burglary, personal larceny, car theft and bicycle theft. To examine these effects' individual life-course data on marital, fertility, residential, educational, employment and criminal histories were related to histories of criminal victimization. These data derived from a nationally representative survey administered in the Netherlands in 1996 to 1,939 individuals age 15 years or older. Logistic multilevel models were used in the analysis of the data. The results of the analyses suggest that individuals who have once been victims suffer a substantial higher risk of subsequent victimization. This effect of previous victimization can partly be explained by a real effect of previous victimization (state dependence), but more largely by the effects of patterns of routine activities (heterogeneity in the population).

 

Association Between Child Sexual Abuse and Sexual Revictimization in Adulthood Among Women Sex Partners of Injection Drug Users

http://www.extenza-eps.com/SPC/doi/abs/10.1891/vivi.2003.18.4.473

Abstract text

Community-recruited women (n = 1490) were interviewed about their early and adult sexual victimization histories to determine whether there was an association between child sexual abuse and adult revictimization by sex partners and strangers/nonsex partners. Adolescent sexual abuse, lifetime sex-trading, drug treatment, and mental health treatment were examined as mediating variables. One-fourth of the women had been revictimized (i.e., experienced child sexual abuse and at least one instance of adult sexual victimization). Child sexual abuse was associated with both rape and other sexual victimization by a sex partner in adulthood, as well as adult rape by a stranger/nonsex partner. Drug and mental health treatments reduced abused women's chances of being raped by a sex partner; drug treatment also decreased the likelihood of other sexual victimization by a sex partner. Sex-trading increased abused women's likelihood of rape by a stranger or nonsex partner. Intervention—including drug treatment—can help women with child sexual abuse histories overcome some of the abuse-related sequelae that make them vulnerable to adult revictimization.

 

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Self- and Interpersonal Dysfunction Among Sexually Retraumatized Women

 

Abstract This study assessed self and interpersonal dysfunction as well as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among three groups of women: women sexually assaulted in both childhood and adulthood, women sexually assaulted only in adulthood and women who were never assaulted. Rates of PTSD were high and equivalent in the two assault groups. However, retraumatized women were more likely to be alexithymic, show dissociation scores indicating risk for dissociative disorders, and to have attempted suicide compared to the other two groups, who did not differ from each other. Additionally, only the retraumatized women experienced clinically significant levels of interpersonal problems. The findings suggest that formulations more inclusive than PTSD are required to capture the psychological difficulties experienced by this population. Treatment implications are discussed.

 

Previous Exposure to Trauma and PTSD Effects of Subsequent Trauma: Results From the Detroit Area Survey of Trauma

Naomi Breslau, Ph.D., Howard D. Chilcoat, Sc.D., Ronald C. Kessler, Ph.D., and Glenn C. Davis, M.D.


OBJECTIVE: With the exception of a few reports of higher rates of childhood trauma in Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), little is known about the influence of previous exposure to trauma on the PTSD effects of subsequent trauma. The authors examine interrelated questions about the effects of previous exposure to trauma. METHOD: A representative sample of 2,181 individuals in southeast Michigan were interviewed by telephone to record lifetime history of traumatic events specified in DSM-IV as potentially leading to PTSD. PTSD was assessed with respect to a randomly selected index trauma from the list of events reported by each respondent. RESULTS: History of any previous exposure to traumatic events was associated with a greater risk of PTSD from the index trauma. Multiple previous events had a stronger effect than a single previous event. The effect of previous assaultive violence persisted over time with little change. When they examined several features of the previous exposure to trauma, the authors found that subjects who experienced multiple events involving assaultive violence in childhood were more likely to experience PTSD from trauma in adulthood. Furthermore, previous events involving assaultive violence—single or multiple, in childhood or later on—were associated with a higher risk of PTSD in adulthood. CONCLUSIONS: Previous exposure to trauma signals a greater risk of PTSD from subsequent trauma. Although these results are consistent with a sensitization hypothesis, like the results from previous research on PTSD, they do not address the mechanism of increased responsivity to trauma. Long-term observational studies can further elucidate these observations.

Child Sexual Abuse, Peer Sexual Abuse, and Sexual Assault in Adulthood: A Multi-Risk Model of Revictimization

Abstract This study explored the predictors and consequences of sexual assault occurring after the age of 16 years in a nonclinical sample of women. Child sexual abuse occurring before the age of 16 years was the only predictor of later sexual assault among comorbid risk factors. Peer sexual abuse, number of perpetrators, age at time of sexual abuse, and severity of sexual abuse did not increase the risk for later sexual assault. Adult sexual assault victims showed lower levels of mental health functioning than did survivors of child or peer sexual abuse. We discuss a specificity model of revictimization and the differential effects of child, peer, and adult sexual trauma on the developmental trajectory of sexual violence and psychosocial functioning.

 

Sarkar, N. N.; Sarkar, Rina, (2005) Sexual assault on woman: Its impact on her life and living in society. Sexual & Relationship Therapy,20 (4), 407-419
Database: Academic Search Premier

Abstract:The author's aim is to bring forth the consequences of sexual assault on women with a view to abate this crime against women. Data are extracted from the literature through the computerised MEDLINE system. Women sexually assaulted in childhood are twice as likely to be sexually assaulted in adulthood. Post-traumatic mental problems, acute stress disorders, depression and other psychological problems are found in victims of sexual assault. Women often suffer from sleep disorders, nightmare, anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, and diminishing of sexual urge and pleasure among other disorders following sexual assault or rape. Recovery is slower in sexual than in non-sexual assault victims. Factors influencing recovery are emotional support from friends, relations, social and community supports. Overall social changes in outlook and perception towards women are needed in the modern society to curb the sexual assault on women.

 

Rich, Cindy L. (2004). Evaluation of a model of sexual revictimization: A prospective study. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 64(9-B), 2004. pp. 4631.

This study investigated the impact of child sexual abuse, adolescent sexual assault, coping, attachment styles, sexual trauma, number of sex partners, hypergender beliefs, substance use, and delinquent behavior in predicting a sexual assault during a 3-month follow-up period among a group of college women. Five-hundred-forty college women were assessed for childhood and adolescent sexual victimizations and the predictor variables at the beginning of an academic quarter and sexual assaults at a 3-month follow-up. Incorporated in the design were both retrospective and prospective methodologies in that a woman's sexual abuse history, coping skills, number of sex partners, attachment, sexual trauma, hypergender beliefs, substance use, and delinquency were assessed before a woman's most recent victimization experience. Path analyses indicated that an adolescent sexual victimization experience predicted an adult sexual victimization experience. However, only sexual trauma and a previous history demonstrated a significant relationship with an adult sexual assault. Therefore, the hypothesis that factors mediating unresolved trauma associated with early abuse experiences would predict revictimization was only partially supported. Specifically, child sexual victimization was predictive of insecure attachment and an adolescent sexual victimization. An adolescent sexual victimization predicted the number of sexual partners, substance use and involvement in illegal activities, and an adult sexual assault. Additionally, sexual trauma predicted an adult sexual assault. Thus, from these data, a previous sexual victimization experience and sexual trauma appear to be predictive of a subsequent sexual assault. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2005 APA, all rights reserved)

 

Classen, Catherine C.; Palesh, Oxana Gronskaya; Aggarwal, Rashi. (2005). SEXUAL REVICTIMIZATION: A Review of the Empirical Literature. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, Apr2005, 6 (2). p103-129.

This article reviews the literature on sexual revictimization, covering approximately 90 empirical studies and includes a discussion of prevalence, risk factors, and correlates of sexual revictimization. Research suggests that two of three individuals who are sexually victimized will be revictimized. The occurrence of child- hood sexual abuse and its severity are the best documented and researched predictors of sexual revictimization. Multiple traumas, especially childhood physical abuse, and recency of sexual victimization are also associated with higher risk. There is preliminary evidence that membership in some ethnic groups or coming from a dysfunctional family places an individual at a greater risk. Revictimization is associated with higher distress and certain psychiatric disorders. People who were revictimized show difficulty in interpersonal relationships, coping, self-representations, and affect regulation and exhibit greater self-blame and shame. Existing research on prevention efforts and treatment is discussed. More longitudinal studies on sexual revictimization are needed.

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