Privacy

Rape Crisis Research

Overview

Some of the key aspects of the definition of privacy according to psychology literature are the following:

Privacy is not the absence of other people from one's presence but the control over the contact one has with them. (Pedersen, D. 1997)

“Selective control of access to the self” (Margulis, S. 2003)

“Control over or regulation of or, more narrowly, limitations on or exemption from scrutiny, surveillance, or unwanted access.” (Margulis, S. 2003)

Control is a key feature in most definitions of privacy in current literature. Some theories suggest that loss of privacy results in loss of control and resulting disorders. (Margulis, 2003) It is also a key aspect of sexual assault and the resulting psychological traumas. Many sexual assault survivors suffer from eating disorders which also center around control issues.

The four types (or states) of privacy according to Alan Westin are:
Solitude - Freedom from the observation of others.
Intimacy - Being alone with others.
Anonymity – Being among others but without personal surveillance by them.
Reserve – Unwillingness to disclose personal aspects of the self to others. (Margulis,S. 2003) (Pedersen, D. 1997)

How is this linked to sexual assault?

"Rape is the ultimate invasion of privacy." (Huspek, G., & Radford, P., 1997)

"The victim's response to rape primarily reflects her reaction to violation of
self; it is an emotional as well as a physical assault" (Hazelwood, A., & Burgess, W., 2001)

"Though a rape victim may not sustain substantial physical tissue damage, rapists may inflict significant psychological trauma by asserting uninvited domination, control, and power over the unwilling other (e.g., Brownsmiller, 1975)."(Schneider et. al., 1994) It is important that society be aware of it’s boundaries regarding privacy. “An environment that tolerates rape will also tolerate a range of invasions of one’s own privacy…” and perhaps the other way around.

People need to regulate who, how often and what type of contact they have with each other. It is important that individuals be able to regulate contact by both increasing and decreasing contact.(Pedersen, D. 1997) “Schoeman rightly argues that privacy… is not generally in order to isolate people but to enable them to relate intimately.” (Ben-Ze'ev, A. 2003)

"Rape is not about sex to the rapist; it has to do with control and power."

Privacy is also the basis for development of individuality, protects personal autonomy and supports health by providing opportunities to relax, be one's self, vent, escape stress, and cope with loss, shock and sorrow. (Pedersen, D. 1997)

Privacy diagram

The negative effects of loss of privacy:

- Loss of opportunities due to failure to psychologically control privacy related behaviors in situations in which more powerful people seek to control others. (Margulis, 2003)

- Disorders - Some theories suggest that loss of privacy results in loss of control and resulting disorders. (Margulis, 2003)

- Loss of sense of hope - A potential long term consequence is coming to “believe that certain opportunities for privacy are simply not available.”(Margulis, 2003)

- Autonomy - Learning the limits of autonomy.

- Loss - When privacy is violated it is lost. “Invasions occur when initial conditions for privacy are not achieved. Examples include being surreptitiously over heard or being unable to prevent physical access to self.” (Margulis, 2003)

- Behavior problems - Failure to meet privacy needs has also been linked to anti social and aggressive behaviors. (Pedersen, D. 1997)

- Stigmas result in the person being devalued, lowered in status, stereotyped and victimized by prejudice and discrimination. (Margulis, 2003) They also result in further breaches of privacy because the unstigmatized treat them as objects of curiosity. If the subject is unable to handle these social interactions they feel embarrassed and unwanted. (Margulis, 2003)

Further definitions of control:

Altman’s definition of privacy emphasized “the selective control of access to the self.” 16 The psychological analysis of privacy yields the following definition: “Privacy, as a whole or in part, represents control over the transactions between the person(s) and other(s), the ultimate aim of which is to enhance autonomy and / or to minimize vulnerability… as well as regulation of access to self.” 17 Most concepts concerning privacy are derived from A. F. Westin’s literature on the subject. Altman is another prominent figure in the field. 16 Privacy has also been described as that which is of legitimate concern only to the self (not of others). 5 Privacy is an individual’s claim to determine what information should be known to others as well as when and what uses will be made of it. 29 The difference between privacy and solitude is that the later is the wish to be alone. Privacy involves control over that situation in either direction. 5 Altman had a very large influence on how researchers understand privacy.

Online resources

Privacy from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/privacy/

BUBL links on Freedom and privacy

http://bubl.ac.uk/link/f/freedomandprivacy.htm

Online resources on privacy from DMOZ open directory project

http://dmoz.org/Computers/Security/Internet/Privacy/

The IBM Privacy Research Institute
http://www.research.ibm.com/privacy/

"The IBM Privacy Research Institute is an organization within IBM Research to promote and advance research in privacy and data protection technology. Our goal is to develop technologies for enterprises to conduct e-business in privacy-enabling ways. The institute's research focuses on technologies for commercial applications, particularly for e-business."

EPIC Resources on Domestic Surveillance

http://www.epic.org/

Canadian privacy ethics

http://www.pre.ethics.gc.ca/english/policystatement/section3.cfm

"Dignity and autonomy of human subjects is the ethical basis of respect for the privacy of research subjects. Privacy is a fundamental value, perceived by many as essential for the protection and promotion of human dignity. Hence, the access, control and dissemination of personal information are essential to ethical research."

Journal articles

Leino-Kilpi, H. (2001). Privacy: a review of the literature. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 38(6):663-71.

Margulis, S. (2003). On the status and contribution of westin's and altman's theories of privacy. Journal of Social Issues, 59 (2) 411-429.

Pedersen, D. (1997). Psychological functions of privacy. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 17, 147-156.

Westin, A. (2003). Social and political dimensions of privacy. Journal of Social Issues, 59 (2).

Books

Alderman, E., & Kennedy, C. (1995). The Right to Privacy. New York: Knopf Publishing Group.

Hendricks, E., & Hayden, T. (1990). Your Right to Privacy the Basic Guide to Legal Rights in an Information Society. Illinois, Il: Southern Illinois University Press.

Mclean, D. (1995). Privacy and its invasion. CT: Praeger.

"A refreshing viewpoint on the philosophical dimensions, including new looks at privacy and sexual assault, race, and newsroom ethics. In the end, casual reader and scholars will understand why privacy is an important value for human life." "McLean examines problem areas in which privacy invasions play, or have played, large roles. Rape and sexual offenses are analyzed; so, too, is news reporting that touches private matters and race relations." "Privacy and its Invasion also has a point to make: that privacy, despite its dark side, is an idea whose time has come, an ancient need that now requires explicit endorsement and protection as a value. A thought-provoking examination of something we have come to regard as a basic right, but a right under assault, this book is for all concerned with contemporary social and legal issues, civil liberties, and communications." - Privacy Journal

Scott, G.G. (1995). Mind Your Own Business: The Battle for Personal Privacy. New York: Insight Books.

Bibliographies

The Privacy Project

http://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/asianstudies/privacyproject/bibliographyNK.htm

Surveillance bibliography

http://web.uvic.ca/~polisci/bennett/courses/456/sbib.htm

ACLU Privacy bibliography

http://www.aclu.org/privacy/index.html

Privacy bibliography

http://privacy.med.miami.edu/bibliography_privacy.htm

BIBLIOGRAPHY ON COMPUTER ETHICS

http://courses.cs.vt.edu/~cs3604/lib/Bibliography/Biblio.acm.html

Research privacy ethics bibliography

http://www.privireal.org/content/rec/bibliography.php

Privacy: A Selected Bibliography

http://www.archivists.org/saagroups/privacy/pcbiblio.asp

ALA bibliography and toolkit on privacy

http://www.ala.org/

Annotated Bibliography
Papers on Data Surveillance: Theory, Practice & Policy

http://www.anu.edu.au/people/Roger.Clarke/DV/AnnBibl.html

Information Privacy

http://ils.unc.edu/classes/inls110_45_sp02/110-Mod-Privacy.S02.htm

Resources to research this subject:

Journals and articles- Use the Psychinfo database

Search the NCJRS Abstracts Database

Google scholar or Findarticles

Finding books at the library

Online Libraries on sexual assault

Encyclopedias and Dictionaries

Search terms: Privacy, ethics, information ethics, Alan Westin, research, Margulis, Pederson

Related links: Victim blame, Rape as a violation of rights- women are not damaged property, eating disorders,

References:

Rape, Control and Privacy

a bibliography

Alderman, E., & Kennedy, C. (1995). The Right to Privacy. New York: Knopf Publishing Group.

Ben-Ze'Ev, A. (2003) "Privacy, emotional closeness and openness in cyberspace." Computers in Human Behavior, 19, 451-67.

Hazelwood, R., Wolbert A. (2001). Practical Aspects of Rape Investigation. FL : CRC Press.

Cate, F. (2001). Privacy In Perspective. Washington D.C., : The AEI Press.

Desmond, R. (2002). Big Brother Is Watching: Reasonable Expectations of Privacy in the Technological Age. Reporter, 29, 3-5.

Hanson, R. (2002). Adolescent dating violence: prevalence and psychological outcomes. Child Abuse & Neglect , 26(5).

Hendricks, E., Hayden, T. (1990). Your Right to Privacy the Basic Guide to Legal Rights in an Information Society. Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press.

Heymann, P. (2002). Civil liberties and human rights in the aftermath of september 11. Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy, 25. 441.

Huspek, G., Radford, P. (1997 ). Transgressing Discourses: Communication and the Voice of Other. New York : Suny Press.

Kateb, G. (2001). 0n being watched and known. Social Research, 68.

Kupferman, T. (1990). Privacy and Publicity. Westport, London, : Mecklermedia.

Laws, A., Golding, J. (1996). Sexual assault history and eating disorder symptoms among White, Hispanic, and African-American women and men. Journal of Public Health, 86,(4). 579.

Leino-Kilpi, H. (2001). Privacy: a review of the literature. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 38(6):663-71.

Lugli-Rivero, Z. (2001). Eating disorders and behavioral personal control. Salud Publica Mex, 43:9-16.

Margulis, S. (2003). On the status and contribution of westin's and altman's theories of privacy. Journal of Social Issues, 59 (2) 411-429.

Margulis, S. (2003). Privacy as a social issue and behavioral concept. Journal of Social Issues, 59.

Mayer, M. (1972). Rights of Privacy. New York: Law-Arts publishers, Inc.

Mclean, D. (1995). Privacy and its invasion. , CT: Praeger.

McWhirter, D., Bible, J. (1992). Privacy As A Constitutional Right. New York, Westport, Connecticut, London : Quorum Books.

Nagel, T. (2002). Concealment and Exposure. New York: Oxford University Press.

Pedersen, D. (1997). Psychological functions of privacy. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 17, 147-156.

Post, R. (1989). The social foundations of privacy: community and self in the common law tort. California Law Review, 77, 957.

Rosen, J. (2000). The Unwanted Gaze The Destruction of Privacy in America. New York: Random House.

Schoeman, Ferdinand (1984) Philosophical Dimensions of Privacy: An Anthology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Scoglio, S. (1998). Transforming Privacy a Transpersonal Philosophy of Rights.

Scott, G.G. (1995). Mind Your Own Business: The Battle for Personal Privacy. New York: Insight Books.

Shapiro, J. (1993). A psychological `sense-of-control' profile of patients with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Psychological Reports, 73.

Westin, A. (2003). Social and political dimensions of privacy. Journal of Social Issues, 59.

Wonderlich, S. (2000). Eating disturbance and sexual trauma in childhood and adulthood. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 3, 401.

Zweig, D. , Webster, J. (2002). Where is the line between benign and invasive? an examination of psychological barriers to the acceptance of awareness monitoring systems. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 605-633.

(2003). What Causes Eating Disorders. Retrieved Dec. 12, 2003, http://www.pbs.org/perfectillusions/
eatingdisorders/preventing_causes.html

(2003). What causes eating disorders?. Retrieved Dec. 12, 2003, http://www.anred.com/causes.html

(1997). The truth about date rape. Ebony, 52 (11).