Instead... try walking
the beauty path
Victim blame and
self blame in sexual assault
Research
Recommended therapy:
Cognitive behavioral therapy
The first thing
you should know if you were raped or sexually assaulted is that it was not your fault.
Always remember
The Only Person Who Responsible For An Assault Is The Perpetrator.
If you have been assaulted, no
matter what you do, or don't do, in any case It Is Not Your Fault.
It's one thing to
say that and another to really understand why.
Why do rape victims
feel guilty for being the victim of a crime? It doesn't make sense.
Cognitive restructuring
is a way of looking at the facts and seeing them in a better light.
This worksheet
can help you reason out exactly why you are not to blame.
Some popular theories on why
self blame happens are:
- Sometimes it's because no one
supported us when we reported. It is easier to believe that a rape victim
lied than to believe that someone would commit such a horrible crime.
This is also a part of the just
world theory.
- Do you ever get angry at the
wrong person when you have repressed anger? Getting mad at someone who
is "safe" to yell at - when a dangerous person really deserves
it is pretty common. The dangerous person might find out and retaliate.
Turning anger and blame against yourself may be part of this problem.
This is a concept associated with stockholm
syndrome.
- A related scenario of self blame
: Children of divorce often self-blame. No matter what anyone else says
the child believes that they could have stopped the divorce by being
better. The lessons we learn in childhood are the ones that stick with
us the longest, so once you start self-blaming (for whatever reason)
it grows and mutates into something bigger.
Out of the 2 types of self blame
(guilt and shame) shame is the most harmful because it is so hard to
route out. It has the most subtle but lethal stigma. It is so difficult
because if there is nothing faulty in you, you will never find what
you are looking for. That is because you are a good person and it's
not your fault. What you need is to join a community in which you as
yourself are considered normal (not stigmatized) and to readjust your
world view to see your present circumstances as normal for what you
have been through. 1 in 4 women in the
US have or will experience sexual assault within their lifetimes. When
someone tells me they feel stigmatized by their assault I usually tell
them 'Welcome to the majority. You are normal.'
It has been suggested that the
way to reduce the amount of shame a person is feeling is:
By walking the
beauty path.
This means redefining 'normal'
and what that is in our society.
One way of doing that is through
cultural phenomenons like the Vagina
Monologues. This play takes taboo subjects and transforms them into
a beautiful experience of empowerment and art. It has been described
as "incredibly intimate and amazingly
universal". Part of it's power is the use of language
to describe experiences around the reality of being female and sexuality.
It also explores themes of sexual abuse without a sense of shame. You
can rent it at most movie rental stores. Other sources of normalcy for
survivor issues are survivor
music (such as Tori
Amos) and participating in women's
week events like the clothesline
project. You can also explore personal
survivor sites.
Please read this
article on self blame by Shannon who founded the Pandora's Aquarium
support group.
Everytime I have given a presentation
on rape crisis resources several women approach me afterwards and tell
me: "I've never told anyone before- but that happened to me too."
Unfortunately being an assault
victim IS normal for a quarter of the women in this country. There is
no reason to feel alone.
Another solution to rid shame
is:
Belonging to and
being welcomed by a community
One of the first things people
who feel shame want to do is withdraw. Having been through this myself
I know it's hard to stay in the same social circle while having this
on your mind. Finding community is an important part of your life. Where
do you belong? One place you definitely belong is with a rape
survivor support group. I know it sounds like it might be scary
telling your story to people- but the thing about survivor communities
is- they are inclusive. You will likely find that you share alot of
things in common with the other members. Things you thought only you
had to deal with. Maybe things you didn't even associate with rape trauma
syndrome. I had no idea what SI or PTSD were before I became a part
of the survivor community. I have seen many people blossom in support
groups. It is a process from the moment they joined, finally opened
up to someone, and then transitioned from victim to survivor.
Here
is a list of online rape survivor support groups
There are also types of counseling
and therapy which are recommended for victims feeling undeserved self
blame. These are also some ways to reaffirm that
YOU HAVE CONTROL NOW:
Learning
about rape trauma syndrome, seeking positive
support sources, learning
about victim blame and cognitive
restructuring or
cognitive therapy. You can also find a cognitive
therapist here. http://academyofct.org/
or UK http://www.eabct.com/
Ways you
have control NOW are also listed here.
This theory is supported by Tedeschi
and Calhoun who propose that post-traumatic growth occurs in the three
areas of (1) self-perception (particularly with regard to strength),
(2) interpersonal relations, and (3) philosophy of life according to
Dr.
Carl Auerbach.
If you need to step back and
put these feelings on hold please try the container exercise:
"Visualize a “container.”
For me, this is usually a purple box. I imagine that I am putting the
memories, or whatever was causing me mental pain at the time, into the
box. Then I visualize myself burying the box. My therp says the point
of this exercise is to “put things away” for awhile, until
I am ready to handle them later, when I’m feeling stronger. It’s
so I don’t have to feel a sense of urgency or panic. I know that
those thoughts and memories are safely stored away. And I know that
I can do my meditation, and go “open” that box again, when
I’m ready."
from: http://www.psyke.org/coping/coping_skills/
I make pottery and I used to
do this all the time. I made clay containers with lids sometimes. I
would write what was upsetting me on a slip of paper and put it in the
container and close the lid. I felt safer then - as though the feeling
were under control and I didn't have to deal with it if I didn't feel
safe.
We are still struggling with
WHY victims feel guilt and shame for something that is NOT their fault.
No one feels guilty for being mugged or stolen from. It is still somewhat
of a mystery.
The answer to that revolves around
several issues:
1 ) The definitions
of guilt and shame - only the perpetrator deserves these feelings.
2) Control
(which you did not have during an assault and DO have now). You control
the present and can decide to take steps towards healing.
3) Cognitive
restructuring- reasoning out why it's not appropriate
that you should feel guilt or shame. Try this worksheet.
4) Find
out what types of counseling help reduce self blame.
Rape
victims often confuse the undeserved shame they feel at having been
stigmatized with the guilt meant for someone who has committed a crime.
This is reinforced by secondary
victimization and victim
blame. This explains the difference between guilt
(meant for a perpetrator) and shame (meant also for perpetrators and
confused with guilt.)
The
difference between
guilt
v/s
shame
http://www.healthyplace.com/Communities/Abuse/lisk/guilt_shame.htm
Try using
this exercise from the Courage to Heal
The misunderstandings
around guilt v/s shame are still more complex. Guilt is associated
with actions while shame is associated with character. Although guilt
is only meant for someone who HAS done something wrong - some victims
second guess their innocent actions or defense strategies. This does
cause victims to feel undeserved guilt. Shame is likewise undeserved
as there is nothing wrong with the character of a victim. There is
something wrong with the character of a perpetrator.
Rape
victims often blame themselves for the crime committed against them.
Self blame is an avoidance coping skill which inhibits the healing
process. This
page discusses the different theories, aspects and recommended
counseling strategies for understanding self blame.
There are two
main types of self blame: undeserved blame based on character and
undeserved blame based on actions.
These are called
Characterological
and Behavioral.
Behavioral self
blame refers to victims feeling they should have done something differently
(therefore they feel it is their fault).
Characterological
self blame is when victims feel there is something inherently wrong
with them (causing them to deserve to be assaulted). This type of
blame is associated with more psychological negative effects.
This is illogical
thinking (known as counterfactual thinking) which can be remedied
by a therapeutic technique known as cognitive
restructuring.
Cognitive restructuring
is way to stop illogical thought patterns.
Basically that
means sorting out thoughts that don't make sense and looking at the
truth in a better light. The Courage
to Heal has an exercise on this topic as
does mind tools.
Example I
This is a Behavioral
self blame thought: 'It might have turned out better if I had done
something else. I should have cooperated / I should have fought
back.'
This is a more
reasonable thought: 'I might have been hurt worse if I hadn't done
what I felt I needed to in order to stay alive.' or 'If I hadn't
gone to the party I might have been assaulted anyway somewhere else.
I deserve to go to a party and not be raped.' In other words: you
didn't do anything wrong.
Example
II
This
is a Characterological self blame thought: 'I must be a bad person
to deserve to be raped and not believed by anyone.'
This is
a more reasonable thought: 'The only reason people don't believe
me is their belief in the Just
World Theory. If people knew more about rape
trauma syndrome then they would know how to help me instead
of derogating me to my fate.' In other words: there is nothing wrong
with you. Your character is just fine. There is something wrong
with society and with the perpetrator.
If a person
makes someone angry and they killed the person- would that be considered
justified bc they made them angry enough to loose control?
People are expected to control
themselves enough not to commit crimes.
Related
theory: Stockholm
Syndrome
The
Truth Chart |
Behavioral
Blame / Guilt - Appropriate? |
Characterological
Blame / Shame - Appropriate? |
Victim
|
NO
|
NO
|
Perpetrator
|
YES
|
YES
|
Try
this worksheet on changing counterfactual thoughts or
the worksheet from The Courage
to Heal (The Courage to Heal Workbook. Laura Davis. pp 257-260)
There are two
main theories behind victim blame:
The just
world theory and the invulnerability theory.
The Just
world theory states that:
"Individuals
that have a strong belief in a just world can have this belief challenged
when they encounter a victim of random misfortune such as a rape victim.
The individual wants to believe that the world is a safe, just place
where people get what they deserve and deserve what they get. Even
when evidence suggests otherwise, the individual is very reluctant
to give up this belief that the world is not just. In the face of
contradicting evidence, research suggests (Kleinke and Meyer, 1996)
that people with a high belief in a just world will do one of two
things: either they will try to eliminate the suffering of the innocent
victims or else they will derogate them for their fate. Since it is
impossible to reverse the crime of rape, and thus relieve the victim
of her suffering, the rape victim is often subjected to derogation
and blame. In this manner, the person who believes in a just world
can maintain this belief as there is no longer a suffering person,
but a woman who deserves her misfortune."
The invulnerability
theory states that:
Some people
blame themselves because it is a way to think 'you' had control over
the situation. If it was your fault, then you were in control. It
wasn't your fault and you weren't in control - but you are in
control now. Understanding that there are some things we don't
have control
over (like world peace and the actions of criminals) is part of letting
go of shame. You can control your healing process. You can reach
out for help, educate
yourself about rape trauma syndrome and start
therapy.
Remind yourself:
"I
am a human being and deserve support from others in my efforts to
address problems."
"I
deserve support and help to address these problems for my self-growth."
Control
over your life
Wanting
to think you were in control during the assault (negative results):
Self blame is
thought by some to be a way to feel one had never lost control over
the situation. If it is your fault- then you always had control over
things and you feel less vulnerable. This type of thinking is called
past control or behavioral self-blame. Feeling this way is associated
with more distress partly because it is associated with greater social
withdrawal.
Thinking
you are in control NOW (positive results):
Present
control (control over the recovery process) is associated with less
distress partly because it was associated with less social withdrawal
and more cognitive restructuring. If you have control NOW (in the
present) then there are actually productive things you can do to improve
the situation (Frazier, 2005).
Ways you have
control or can take control over your life NOW:
Types of Counseling
and Therapy
Three types of
Rape Crisis Center counseling responses were judged to be helpful
in reducing feelings of self-blame:
(a) Supportive
responses see: Please
read "If you were my sister..."
(b) Psychoeducational
responses (learning about rape
trauma syndrome) see: Effects
of rape
(c) Those
responses addressing the issue of blame. (Matsushita-Arao,
1997 ) see: Victim
blame or Self
blame
A recommended
type of treatment (by a trained therapist) is cognitive
restructuring or
cognitive therapy. Other recommended treatments for PTSD can be
found here. This type of therapy helps with reduction in
Behavioral Self-Blame. It is thought that reduction in Behavioral
Self Blame drives recovery. (Koss & Figueredo, 2004)
Present control
(control over the recovery process) is similar to learning about rape
trauma syndrome and seeking therapy. Feeling that you did NOT control
the assault but control the present situation is associated with less
social withdrawal and more cognitive restructuring (Frazier,
2005). You control the present and can decide to take steps
towards healing.
Suggested ways
of getting rid of shame are:
- The shame-rage connection
- 'Walking the beauty path'
(transmuting the idea of normal to include the stigma- as in the Vagina
Monologues)
- Inclusion of the victim into
a community (such as a support group) The
Challenge of Bonding
Is self blame
a negative thing? Yes.
Self blame is
sometimes associated with avoidance coping which inhibits the healing
process. (Littleton, 2006)
More about the
nature of shame and guilt
Some theories
state that rape victims are confusing shame with guilt. They are distinct
from each other. Research has found that:
- Embarrassment
was associated with transgressions of conventions that govern public
interactions,
- Shame
with the failure to meet important personal standards, and
- Guilt
with actions that harm others or violate duties. (Dacher,
1996)
What are the roles of shame
and guilt in the after math of rape?
- Shame has been found
to be a factor in substance abuse problems whereas guilt has not.
(Collete & Nicholas, 1995)
- Abusive environments
have also been linked to shame-prone tendencies as opposed to guilt-prone.
(Collete & Nicholas, 1995)
- There is a distinct
difference between shame and guilt, who feels it and why.
- Shame is also linked
to repressed anger in both men and women. It manifests as shame
more often in women and anger more often in men. (Collete &
Nicholas, 1995)
Shame-proneness is also described
as "(the tendency to feel bad about the self) relates to a variety
of life problems, whereas guilt-proneness (the tendency to feel bad
about a specific behavior) is more likely to be adaptive." (Dearing
et. al., 2005) This perhaps explains why perpetrators of crimes may
fare better psychologically than victims. If shame is related to more
psychological problems than guilt then the perpetrator of the crime
would suffer less complications. This relates to the invulnerability
theory in that the victim leans toward accepting responsibility for
something they did not do in order to maintain psychological stability.
Guilt is psychologically easier to bear than shame for a reason. Guilt
is the result of actions taken. Shame is the result of a feeling about
one's character. It is easier to alter actions and feel removed from
them than it is to change character or self. Research
on shame and guilt
Of the three self conscious
emotions (shame, embarrassment and pride) PRIDE is the one a survivor
should feel. You survived the assault, you survived the secondary
victimization. You prevailed over your situation and you lived. You
have alot to be proud of. Pride is also a way to "normalize"
your self image. In the same genre as gay pride there ought to be
survivor pride events. That is essentially what women's week is.
All of this is a part of counterfactual
thinking: Meaning, literally, contrary to the facts. It also refers
to thinking about 'what might have been'.
Counterfactual thinking is
also linked to greater attributions of self blame. (Mandel
& Dhami, 2005), (Niedenthal
et., al. 1994), more
research on counterfactual thinking
This can be stopped by using
cognitive
restructuring: Stop telling yourself the bad story and tell yourself
a good story instead. One that says you did the right thing - things
might have been worse had you not done what you needed to do to stay
alive.
Other factors to consider in
self blame (see below articles) are the role of PTSD in shame and
guilt, religious belief systems and more.
see also: Research
on self blame in rape victims
Related Links
Reactions
to victimization.
http://victimservices.ucf.edu/Reactions.html#
Another aspect to consider in
understanding self blame is when the victim identifies with the perpetrator's
world view in order to understand what will help them survive. One such
phenomenon is known as the Stockholm
Syndrome.
"Victims of especially severe
abuse often 'identify with the abuser' in order to survive. This means
she will actually begin to agree with the criticisms and perspectives
of the abuser while her own personality, opinions, and views fade to
the background. This is a serious set of psychological events called
the 'Stockholm Syndrome.'"
http://www.nicholls.edu/wrso/facts.html
"It has been found that
four situations or conditions are present that serve as a foundation
for the development of Stockholm Syndrome. These four situations can
be found in hostage, severe abuse, and abusive relationships:
- The presence of a perceived
threat to one's physical or psychological survival and the belief
that the abuser would carry out the threat
- The presence of a perceived small kindness from the abuser to the
victim
- Isolation from perspectives other than those of the abuser
- The perceived inability to escape the situation
"The victim has the sense
they are always "walking on eggshells" – fearful of
saying or doing anything that might prompt a violent/intimidating outburst.
For their survival, they begin
to see the world through the abuser's perspective.
They begin to fix things that
might prompt an outburst, act in ways they know makes the abuser happy,
or avoid aspects of their own life that may prompt a problem...in Stockholm
Syndrome there is a daily preoccupation with "trouble". Trouble
is any individual, group, situation, comment, casual glance, or cold
meal that may produce a temper tantrum or verbal abuse from the controller
or abuser...The abusing partner may threaten to spread rumors or tell
intimate details or secrets. A type of blackmail using intimacy is often
found in these situations."
http://www.mental-health-matters.com/articles/article.php?artID=469
Survivor
guilt
http://www.bartleby.com/59/17/survivorguil.html
"A deep sense of guilt, combined
often with feelings of numbness and loss of interest in life, felt by
those who have survived some catastrophe....
Challenge irrational thoughts.
Ask yourself what you truly could have done at the time of the disaster.
Remind yourself who is to blame -- you are not to blame. Grieve for those
who perished and for the loss of innocence. But, do not accept responsibility
for that loss."
Origins
of Self-Blame and Survivor Guilt
http://www.wordwebonline.com/en/SURVIVORGUILT
"Self-blame arises in part
from the fact that powerlessness and helplessness are two of the worst
feelings any human being can experience. Yet being and feeling powerless
or helpless in the face of great danger is the very definition of trauma.
However, people prefer to think that they are able to control their lives,
so it is easier to blame themselves for negative events than to acknowledge
that sometimes life is unfair or arbitrary and innocent people can be
victimized for no reason.
Consequently, to maintain a sense
of being in control you may view yourself, rather than chance, as responsible
for one or more aspects of the trauma--perhaps for all of it. In this
way, self-blame can be a means of regaining the power that was lost during
the traumatic event." Eating
disorders and sexual assault research
PTSD
and survivor guilt
http://www.nursing-standard.co.uk/archives/ns/vol14-22/cpd.pdf
"The study of guilt has received
increased prominence
over the past ten years, allowing guilt experiences
to be further categorised, assessed and
treated (Glover 1984 and 1988, Hendin and Haas
1991, Kubany 1994). Guilt can be categorised in a
number of ways, two common categories associated
with PTSD are:
Survivor guilt: evidenced by ruminating about
the person’s self-worth when compared to others;
‘My child deserved to live more than I’, with
self blame and self punishment being prominent
themes as the person feels responsible and
guilty for surviving a trauma where a
friend/family member died.
Commissioned guilt: evidenced by ruminating
about one’s responsibility and wrong-doing due
to an act – for example, a police officer who
shoots and kills an armed robber, but later finds
out that the robber’s gun was a replica.
Books
NiCarthy, G. (1982). Emotional
abuse. In Getting Free. Seattle: WA: Seal Press: 285-304.
Book chapter focuses on personal
life dilemmas such as terror, inability to act independently due to erosion
of self esteem. Issues of control, manipulation by perpetrator and self-blame
as examined. Biderman's Chart of Coercion is included as well as questionnaires
to measure levels of abuse. Recommended for general public and professionals.
Journal articles
Scholarly
journal article citations on survivor guilt
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=survivor+guilt+and+sexual+assault
Koss, M. & Figueredo, A. (2004).
COGNITIVE MEDIATION OF RAPE'S MENTAL HEALTH IMPACT: CONSTRUCTIVE REPLICATION
OF A CROSS-SECTIONAL MODEL IN LONGITUDINAL DATA. Psychology of Women
Quarterly, 28 (4), p273-286.
Quote:
"The model's central features
were confirmed and showed that Psychological Problem History exacerbated
Characterological Self-Blame, leading to more Maladaptive Beliefs, which
determined initial Psychosocial Distress and its rate of decline."
Matsushita-Arao, Yoshiko. (1997).
Self-blame and depression among forcible rape survivors. Dissertation
Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering,
57(9-B). pp. 5925.
Quote:
The purposes of this study were
four-fold. The first purpose was to determine the relationship between
rape survivors' self-blame (behavioral, characterological, and total amount
of self-blame) and time (retrospective and current assessments). For the
retrospective assessment, survivors rated their feelings of self-blame
immediately following their rape and before receiving Rape Crisis Center
(RCC) treatment. For the current assessment, survivors rated their feelings
of self-blame at the time of completing this study's questionnaire and
after having received RCC treatment. The second purpose was to identify
whether perceived severity was a better predictor of current total amounts
of self-blame and depression than actual severity. The third purpose was
to determine the relationships between current self-blame and depression
and various pre-assault, assault, and post-assault variables. The fourth
purpose was to identify the relationships between RCC contacts (number
of contacts and amount of satisfaction) and current self-blame and depression.
Participants were women survivors of adult forcible rape identified by
staff members at 14 RCCs. Questionnaires were mailed to 50 women who agreed
to participate, and of these, 42 (84%) returned them. Wilcoxin Signed-Ranks
test for matched pairs, simple correlations, and multiple regression were
used to analyze the data. The major findings were: (1) RCC survivors reported
experiencing less total, behavioral, and characterological amounts of
self-blame currently than they retrospectively reported experiencing right
after their rape. (2) The best predictor of current total amount of self-blame
using pre-assault, assault, and post-assault variables was the relationship
to the assailant(s). Survivors who knew their assailant(s) reported experiencing
more self-blame. (3) The best predictor of current amount of depression
was the amount of time since the rape. As the amount of time increased,
the survivors reported experiencing less depression. (4) Three types of
RCC counseling responses were judged to be helpful in reducing feelings
of self-blame: (a) supportive responses, (b) psychoeducational responses,
and (c) those responses addressing the issue of blame. (5) There was an
inverse relationship between the number of RCC counseling contacts for
the rape and the current total amount of self-blame. As the number of
contacts increased, the survivors reported experiencing less self-blame.
Implications of the findings are discussed.
Branscombe, N., Wohl, M., Owen,
S., Allison, J. & N'gbala, A. (2003). Counterfactual Thinking, Blame
Assignment, and Well-Being in Rape Victims. Basic & Applied Social
Psychology, 25 (4). p265, 9p.
Quote:
Blame assignment and well-being
among women who had been raped (N = 85) were investigated as a function
of counterfactual thinking. The more upward counterfactuals (i.e., ways
the rape might have been avoided) victims concurred with where some aspect
of the self was mutated, the poorer their well-being. The effect of such
upward counterfactual thinking on well-being was mediated by increases
in self-blame. The amount of blame assigned to both the rapist and society
did not mediate the effect of counterfactual thinking on well-being. These
observed effects of counterfactual thinking on blame assignment are consistent
with those obtained with uninvolved observers and with victims of other
types of trauma. Models testing other possible relationship orderings
were not supported. Implications for intervention strategies with rape
victims are considered.
Frazier, P., Mortensen, H., Steward,
J. (2005). Coping Strategies as Mediators of the Relations Among Perceived
Control and Distress in Sexual Assault Survivors. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 52 (3). p267-278.
Quote:
Two studies assessed whether coping
strategies mediate the relations among 2 forms of perceived control (past
and present control) and postassault distress among female sexual assault
survivors. In Study 1, longitudinal data were gathered from 2 weeks to
1 year postassault (N = 171). Past control (behavioral self-blame) was
associated with more distress partly because it was associated with greater
social withdrawal. Present control (control over the recovery process)
was associated with less distress partly because it was associated with
less social withdrawal and more cognitive restructuring. In Study 2, cross-sectional
data were gathered from a community sample of nonrecent survivors of sexual
assault (N = 131). Coping strategies again mediated the relations among
the measures of past and present control and distress.
Littleton, Heather; Breitkopf,
Carmen Radecki. (2006). COPING WITH THE EXPERIENCE OF RAPE. Psychology
of Women Quarterly, 30 (1), p106-116.
Quote:
The coping strategies that a victim
of a rape engages in can have a strong impact on the development and persistence
of psychological symptoms. Research provides evidence that victims who
rely heavily on avoidance strategies, such as suppression, are less likely
to recover successfully than those who rely less heavily on these strategies.
The present study utilized structural path analysis to identify predictors
of avoidance coping following rape and examined factors in the assault
itself (e.g., force, alcohol use), sequelae of the assault (e.g., self-blame,
loss of self-worth), and social support as potential direct and indirect
predictors of avoidance coping. From a sample of 1,253 university women,
the responses of 216 women who endorsed an experience of rape were examined.
Results suggested that sequelae of the assault such as feelings of self-blame
and negative reactions received from others are potentially important
predictors of avoidance coping. Implications of the results for future
rape recovery research are discussed.
Walker, Jayne; Archer, John; Davies,
Michelle. (2005). Effects of Rape on Men: A Descriptive Analysis. Archives
of Sexual Behavior, 34 (1). p69-80, 12p.
Quote:
Previous studies of the effects
of rape on men have focused mainly on clinical populations. This study
extended current research by investigating the effects of rape on a non-clinical
sample of men recruited from the general population by media advertising.
A total of 40 male rape victims were asked to provide details of their
assaults, levels of psychological disturbance, long-term effects, and
reporting issues. Results revealed that most assaults had been carried
out using physical or violent force, in a variety of different circumstances.
All of the victims reported some form of psychological disturbance as
a result of being raped. Long-term effects included anxiety, depression,
increased feelings of anger and vulnerability, loss of self-image, emotional
distancing, self-blame, and self-harming behaviors. Findings are discussed
in relation to previous research in the area and perceptions of rape.
Panepinto, Amberly R. (2005). Meaning
reconstruction and recovery in rape survivors. Dissertation Abstracts
International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 66(1-B).
pp. 568.
Quote:
While some research has focused
on the meanings created by women after an episode of violence, none has
focused on the meaning-making process. The present study explores the
meaning-making process after a rape, specifically investigating how women's
constructions of the rape and the self change over time. The study was
rooted in personal construct psychology, a theory that focuses on the
ways that we create meanings. Narrative methods were used, and the data
analysis was conducted through grounded theory. Themes will be presented
for each participant individually and across participants. Themes across
participants include finding a sense of purpose, confronting the perpetrator,
rejecting self-blame, taking responsibility for the recovery process,
finding a support network, and struggles with relationships and body image.
Implications for recovery models, therapy, and personal construct psychology
will be discussed.
Foa, Edna B.; Rauch, Sheila A.
M. (2004). Cognitive Changes During Prolonged Exposure Versus Prolonged
Exposure Plus Cognitive Restructuring in Female Assault Survivors With
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 72(5). pp. 879-884.
The authors
report on changes in cognitions related to posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) among 54 female survivors of sexual and nonsexual assault with
chronic PTSD who completed either prolonged exposure alone or in combination
with cognitive restructuring. Treatment included 9-12 weekly sessions,
and assessment was conducted at pretreatment, posttreatment, and a modal
12-month follow-up. As hypothesized, treatment that included prolonged
exposure resulted in clinically significant, reliable, and lasting reductions
in negative cognitions about self, world, and self-blame as measured by
the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory. The hypothesis that the addition
of cognitive restructuring would augment cognitive changes was not supported.
Reductions in these negative cognitions were significantly related to
reductions in PTSD symptoms. The addition of cognitive restructuring did
not significantly augment the cognitive changes. Theoretical implications
of the results are discussed.
Branscombe, Nyla R.; Wohl, Michael
J. A.; Owen, Susan; Allison, Julie A.; N'gbala, Ahogni. (2003). Counterfactual
Thinking, Blame Assignment, and Well-Being in Rape Victims. Basic
& Applied Social Psychology, 25 (4). p265, 9p.
Quote:
Blame assignment and well-being
among women who had been raped (N = 85) were investigated as a function
of counterfactual thinking. The more upward counterfactuals (i.e., ways
the rape might have been avoided) victims concurred with where some aspect
of the self was mutated, the poorer their well-being. The effect of such
upward counterfactual thinking on well-being was mediated by increases
in self-blame. The amount of blame assigned to both the rapist and society
did not mediate the effect of counterfactual thinking on well-being. These
observed effects of counterfactual thinking on blame assignment are consistent
with those obtained with uninvolved observers and with victims of other
types of trauma. Models testing other possible relationship orderings
were not supported. Implications for intervention strategies with rape
victims are considered.
Frazier, Patricia A. (2003). Perceived
control and distress following sexual assault: A longitudinal test of
a new model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(6)
pp. 1257-1269.
Quote:
Longitudinal data were collected
from female sexual assault survivors (N=171) at 4 points postassault.
Consistent with the predictions of the temporal model (P. Frazier, M.
Berman, & J. Steward, 2002), past, present, and future control were
differentially related to posttrauma distress. Both personal past (behavioral
self-blame) and vicarious past (rapist blame) control were associated
with higher distress levels. In addition, the belief that future assaults
are less likely was more strongly associated with lower distress levels
than was future control. Present control (i.e., control over the recovery
process) was most adaptive. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses revealed
that changes in perceived control were associated with changes in distress
after linear change in distress over time was accounted for.
Nadon, Susan Margaret. (1972).
The relationship between blame and symptomatology among female victims
of acquaintance rape. Dissertation Abstracts International Section
A: Humanities and Social Sciences. 64(6-A).
Quote:
In recent years, awareness of
the rape of women by acquaintances has been brought to public attention.
The empirical literature suggests that while the consequences of stranger
rape (SR) victims are also common among acquaintance rape (AR), AR victims
tend to blame themselves at a higher rate than their SR counterparts.
Although blaming others for the victimization has received less research
attention, a small body of literature indicated that other blame was related
to negative consequences following threatening events. Out of a sample
of 804 female Introductory Psychology students, 66 participants were identified
as victims of AR. When the victim-offender relationship was restricted
to include only romantic and non-romantic acquaintances and exclude victims
of stranger rape, there was a trend toward significance suggesting that
assaults by less intimate acquaintances were related to higher self-blame,
not less, as predicted. Backward multiple regressions showed that low
resistance by the victim was associated with high self-blame whereas high
resistance was related to high perpetrator blame. As expected, AR victims
reported more psychological symptoms compared to a matched comparison
group of non-acquaintance rape victims or non-victims. Unexpectedly, prior
childhood sexual victimization was unrelated to self-blame, perpetrator
blame, or psychological distress. Self-blame was the only significant
predictor of symptomatology. Implications for treatment and suggestions
for future research are presented.
Koss, Mary P.; Figueredo, Aurelio
José; Prince, Ronald J. (2002). Cognitive mediation of rape's mental,
physical and social health impact: Tests of four models in cross-sectional
data. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(4). pp.
926-941.
Quote:
Four nested, theoretically specified,
increasingly complex models were tested representing cognitive mediation
of rape's effects on mental, physical, and social health. Data were cross-sectional
(N = 253 rape survivors). Outcomes were standardized assessments of social
maladjustment, physical, and psychological symptoms, including posttraumatic
stress disorder (PTSD). The best-fitting model was not fully cognitively
mediated. Personological and rape characteristics influenced the level
of self-blame experienced and the intensity of maladaptive beliefs about
self and others. Self-blame and maladaptive beliefs predicted psychological
distress, which strongly influenced all health outcomes. Self-ratings
of rape memory characteristics contributed little to predicting postrape
distress. The model accounted for 56% of the variance in general distress,
including 91% of psychological symptom severity; 54% of PTSD symptoms;
65% of social maladjustment; and 17% of physical symptoms. Longitudinal
replication is planned.
Shimp, Lana Noel (2002). A model
of sexual assault acknowledgment: Blame, social support, posttraumatic
stress, and posttraumatic growth. Dissertation Abstracts International:
Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 62(11-B). pp. 5392.
Quote:
Previous research has indicated
that approximately half of the women who have experiences which are consistent
with legal descriptions of rape do not identify themselves as having experienced
a rape. A model of sexual assault/rape acknowledgment was proposed, which
attempts to integrate previous research in the area which suggests that
the circumstances of the assault (i.e., relationship with the assailant,
resistance and force), perceptions of significant others' and societal
attitudes towards rape, attributions of blame, disclosure, unsupportive
behavior from others, posttraumatic stress symptomatology, and posttraumatic
growth may be important in terms of understanding acknowledgment. Path
analysis was used to test this model as applied to sexual assault acknowledgment.
The final sample consisted of 238 university women who had experiences
consistent with legal definitions of sexual assault. This sample was obtained
after screening 2552 female students based on their previous unwanted
sexual experiences. The proposed model received partial support and a
better fitting model was derived. Contrary to expectations, sexual assault
acknowledgment was not associated with greater posttraumatic growth, as
posttraumatic stress accounted for the observed relationship between sexual
assault acknowledgment and posttraumatic growth. Thus, the results of
this study contradict clinical and feminist literature, which suggests
that acknowledgment is necessary in order to facilitate growth following
a sexual trauma. More forceful assaults, greater perpetrator blame, more
posttraumatic stress symptomatology, less negative perceptions of significant
others' attitudes towards rape, and more negative perceptions of societal
attitudes towards rape were all directly related to greater sexual assault
acknowledgment. The relationship with the perpetrator, self blame, resistance,
and unsupportive behavior were indirectly related to sexual assault acknowledgment.
As expected, women who had experiences which were consistent with legal
definitions of rape/sexual assault were more likely to use the term "sexual
assault" rather than the term "rape" to describe their
forced sexual experience. This study illustrates the complexity of the
process of sexual assault acknowledgment, as there are many possible paths
to acknowledgment. The results are discussed in terms of sexual assault
reporting, clinical applications, and theoretical issues.
Neville, Helen A.; Heppner, Mary
J.; Oh, Euna; Spanierman, Lisa B.; Clark, Mary. (2004). General And Culturally
Specific Factors Influencing Black And White Rape Survivors' Self-Esteem.
Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28(1). p83-94, 12p.
Quote:
Grounded in a culturally inclusive
ecological model of sexual assault recovery framework, the influence of
personal (e.g., prior victimization), rape context (e.g., degree of injury
during last assault), and postrape response factors (e.g., general and
cultural attributions, rape related coping) on self-esteem of Black and
White college women, who were survivors of attempted and completed rape,
were examined. As predicted, Black and White women identified similar
general variables (e.g., general attributions) as important in the recovery
process. Black women, however, identified a cultural factor (i.e., cultural
attributions) as more important in influencing their reactions to the
last rape compared to their White counterparts. Using path analysis, findings
from this cross-sectional study indicated that severity of the last assault
and prior victimization were related to lower self-esteem indirectly through
avoidance coping strategies, and victim blame attributions for the latter.
Results also suggested that the link between cultural attributions and
self-esteem was explained through victim blame attributions, primarily
for Black participants. The model accounted for 26% of variance in self-esteem.
Ullman, Sarah E. (1996). Social
reactions, coping strategies, and self-blame attributions in adjustment
to sexual assault. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20(4). pp.
505-526.
Quote:
The present study investigated
the impact of social reactions of others to sexual-assault victims on
disclosure of their victimization. A convenience sample of adult sexual-assault
victims (N = 155) completed a mail survey in which they reported information
about their sexual assaults and postassault experiences. As expected,
all negative social reactions were strongly associated with increased
psychological symptoms, whereas most positive social reactions were unrelated
to adjustment. The only social reactions related to better adjustment
were being believed and being listened to by others. Victims experiencing
negative social reactions also reported poorer adjustment even when other
variables known to affect psychological recovery were controlled. Avoidance
coping mediated the association of negative social reactions with adjustment.
Implications of these findings for research and treatment of sexual-assault
survivors are discussed.
Foster MD, Matheson K., Poole M.
(1994). Responding to sexual discrimination: the effects of societal versus
self-blame. J Soc Psychol, 134(6), 743-54.link
Abstract
Although self-blame has been considered
to be a useful coping tool for victims, its benefits within the context
of group discrimination are equivocal. The present research hypothesized
that women encouraged to engage in self-blame for sex discrimination would
be more likely to endorse accepting the situation or to endorse the use
of individual, normative actions. In contrast, women encouraged to engage
in societal blame for sex discrimination would be more likely to participate
in nonnormative actions aimed at enhancing the status of women as a group.
Female students in Canada were subjected to a situation of discrimination
and were encouraged to blame either themselves or society. They were then
given the opportunity to respond to the discrimination by endorsing various
actions. A profile analysis of the endorsed actions indicated that the
women encouraged to blame themselves were most likely to endorse accepting
the situation, whereas the women encouraged to blame society endorsed
nonnormative individual confrontation.
Janoff-Bulman R. (1979). Characterological
versus behavioral self-blame: inquiries into depression and rape.
J Pers Soc Psychol, 37(10):1798-809. link
Quote:
"Two types of self-blame--behavioral
and characterological--are distinguished. Behavioral self-blame is control
related, involves attributions to a modifiable source (one's behavior),
and is associated with a belief in the future avoidability of a negative
outcome. Characterological self-blame is esteem related, involves attributions
to a relatively nonmodifiable source (one's character), and is associated
with a belief in personal deservingness for past negative outcomes. Two
studies are reported that bear on this self-blame distinction. In the
first study, it was found that depressed female college students engaged
in more characterologial self-blame than nondepressed female college students,
whereas behavioral self-blame did not differ between the two groups; the
depressed population was also characterized by greater attributions to
chance and decreased beliefs in personal control. Characterological self-blame
is proposed as a possible solution to the "paradox in depression."
In a second study, rape crisis centers were surveyed. Behavioral self-blame,
and not characterological self-blame, emerged as the most common response
of rape victims to their victimization, suggesting the victim's desire
to maintain a belief in control, particularly the belief in the future
avoidability of rape. Implications of this self-blame distinction and
potential directions for future research are discussed."
Miller, Dale T., Simon Fraser U, Burnaby, Canada
Porter, Carol A. (1983). Self-blame in victims of violence. Journal
of Social Issues, 39(2) pp. 139-152.
Quote:
"Various types of victim self-blame are delineated (e.g., blame for
causing the violence, blame for not being able to modify the violence,
and blame for tolerating the violence)... Additional distinctions are
made between the acts of (1) blaming oneself for being a cause vs simply
being an occasion for the violence and (2) blaming one's abuse on personal
characteristics about which one feels positively vs characteristics about
which one feels negatively."
Rekowski, L., Miejan, T. (2006).
Victim
No More: How To Break Free From Self-Judgement. Hampton Roads
Publishing; Charlottesville. Retrieved
Jan 14, 2006, from National Criminal Justice Reference Service Abstracts.
"Based on her own experiences,
the author discusses how four major life challenges--health, relationships,
self-worth, and abundance--are linked to the consciousness of being a
victim, which can lead to a cycle of self-judgment and the abuse of one's
self and others; guidance is given on how this state of mind can be transformed
into self-love and spiritual empowerment. The author speaks out of her
own experiences of abuse, including a violent date rape, multiple incidents
of domestic abuse...She outlines five steps for this escape. First, commit
yourself to removing the dominant self-consciousness of being a victim.
Second, make a commitment to use the tools offered in this book for beginning
and maintaining a plan of action. Third, say "no" to old negative
thoughts from yourself or others that have for so long determined how
you feel about yourself. Fourth, be aware of and catch yourself when you
start talking negatively about yourself. Finally, surround yourself with
others who want you to succeed in developing a new sense of self and will
join you in the journey not only to help you but also them."
Coffey, P., Leitenberg, H., Henning,
K., Turner, T., & Bennett, R.T. (1996). Mediators of the long term
impact of child sexual abuse: Perceived stigma, betrayal, powerlessness,
and self-blame. Child Abuse & Neglect, 20, 447-455.
Libow, J. & Doty, D. (1979).
An exploratory approach to self-blame and self-derogation by rape victims.
American-Journal-of-Orthopsychiatry, 49(4), 670-679.
Non-Rational
Guilt in Victims of Trauma
The guilt many victims of physical
and psychological trauma experience in response to their victimization
often contains non-rational content which, when analyzed, is more appropriate
to the perpetrator. This non-rational perpetrator guilt is imposed on
the victim under two primary conditions: 1) attribution, in which the
perpetrator disavows guilt and blames the victim for the victimization;
and 2) terror, which results in the victim's rapid incorporation of essentially
the entire world view of the perpetrator, including the perpetrator's
guilt. Guilt results when some aspect of a moral system is transgressed.
There are four aspects of a moral system reflecting different levels of
guilt and four basic components of guilt within each level. The perpetrator's
violation of one aspect of a moral system may be processed by the victim
at the level of another aspect, making resolution difficult. Resolution
involves careful analysis of the content of the guilt to enable the victim
to identify its source.
see also: Research
on self blame in rape victims
See also: Discussion forum on self blame
Resources to research
this subject:
Journals
and articles
Google
scholar or Findarticles
Finding
books at the library
Online
Libraries on sexual assault
Encyclopedias
and Dictionaries
Search terms: avoidance
coping, avoidance strategies, suppression, Past control (behavioral self-blame),
maladaptive beliefs, personal construct
psychology, a theory that focuses on the ways that we create meanings,
prolonged exposure; cognitive changes; cognitions; cognitive restructuring;
female assault survivors; posttraumatic stress disorder, survivor self-blame,
Thoughts for further
research: The role of avoidance coping in self blame as well as the negative
effects avoidance coping has on the healing process. Coping skills to
replace avoidance coping and how to distribute those to the survivor community.
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